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The Early Industrial Revolution, 1760-1851 Causes of the Industrial Revolution A) Population Growth ● More ppl= < demands 4 goods -> lower labor costs ● (1650-1850)- 100 million -> 266 million (population growth in Europe) ● Europe & Wales- 6 million (1700); 9 million (1800); 18 million (1850) ● ^ Caused by < resistance to disease & food supplies (new crops from the Americas) ● Europeans married earlier & have more kids ≈ 40% of Britain’s ppl= under 15 y/o (19th century) -> child labor ● ● Migrations- from Ireland to England & Europe to the Americas ● ^ US population- 4 million (1791) to 9.6 million (1820) then 31.5 million (1860) B) The Agricultural Revolution ● New crops (potatoes) from S. America (16th) ● In Europe- potatoes provided 2/3x more calories per acre > wheat, rye, & oats ● Maize (corn)- grown from N. Iberia to the Balkans ● Landowners w/ secure titles to their land could afford to try new methods & crops (despite risks) ● Gr8 Britain- rich landowners “enclosed” land (surround w/ gates) ● ^ Could drain & improve the soil, breed better livestock, & introduce crop rotation ● ^^ “Enclosure movement” bankrupted poor ppl by taking their lands (landess farm laborers) ● ^ -> Poor moved to cities (jobs), or= vagrants (homeless), or moved to Canada, Australia, or USA C) Trade & Inventiveness ● Textiles= vv important ● ^ @ 1st clothes= made by artisans (guilds) w/ old technologies &< production= training (time) ● ^^ merchants relocated factories away from guild-dominated cities &= to save $ ● ^^^ Proto industrialization- merchants delivered materials/supplies (looms/spinning wheels) to farm families’ homes & to jobbers (organized groups of laborers) ● ^= divided up to do simple tasks= < fast/productive ● Unlike artisans who get daily $, proto-industrial workers = > $ (paid 4 what/how many made) ● 18th century- European trade expanded- Americas, Africa, & Asia -> increased population/wealth ● ^ Sugar & porcelain cups/dinnerware demand increased ● Planters (Caribbean) imported cotton textiles (from Asia) 4 themselves & their slaves ● Gov’t (Europe) sponsored road improvements ● Britain gov’ts neglected roads -> private “turnpike trusts” that built toll roads (pay $ to cross) ● Canal building booms occurred in Britain, France, & + (18th century) ● ^ Gov’ts invested in royal manufacturers that made fine china, silks, & carpets ● England, France, Russia, & Spain recruited artisans -> expanded/protect foreign trade ● 17th century- educated ppl (Europe & Americas)= fascinated by technology/innovation ● Encyclopédie= published in France w/ < 20 years of useful technology (detailed diagrams)- printing, textile machinery, canal locks ● French, Spanish & British gov’ts promoted economic growth by sending expeditions to collect plants ($$) to grow in their colonies ● ^ Offered prizes for scientific discoveries + innovators/scientists= vv famous (celebs) D) Britain & Continental Europe ● 18th century- Britain IR- economic growth, population growth, ppl= willing to put new ideas into practice, strong mining & metal industries, world’s largest merchant marine, & social structure ● 18th century- inventors developed machines that increased productive activity (textile industry) ● ^ Still relied on energy, wind, water, & animal power ● 19th century- developed steam engines that allowed British entrepreneurs to be involved w/ ^ ● European/American investors recognized advantages of new technologies & provided better pay + inducements (convince) 4 British workers to immigrate & introduce new technologies ● ^ Belgium= successful by imitating British industrial model -> most industrialized economy (1840) ● ^^ Germany (after 1850)= major producer of coal, iron, & steel ● US= major industrial power (1860)- adopted textile/metallurgical technologies from Gr8 Britain ● Britain (18th/19th century)- good harvests & overseas trade -> increased goods & manufacturing ● ^ Was the world’s leading exporter of tools, guns, hardware, clocks, & etc ● ^^ Mining & metal industries employed engineers ● ^^^ British- adopted banks, joint stock co., stock markets & insurance HI ● Britain- had H2o transportation system, unified market, & highly developed commercial sector ● Economies (Europe) experienced a similar dynamic expansion (18th century), but lack markets & management skills + constant warfare (1789-1815) interrupted trade & weakened $ to invest new technologies The Technological Revolution ● Division of labor (mass production) ● New machines & mechanization ● Gr8 increase of iron

● Steam engine ● Electric telegraph A) Mass Production: Pottery ● B4 mid-18th century- rich ppl could buy Chinese porcelain, middle class used pewter tableware, & the poor ate from wooden/earthenware bowls ● ^ Royal manufacturers made exquisite handmade products for courts/aristocracy but expensive ● ^^ < ppl love tea, cocoa, & coffee- wanted porcelain that wouldn’t spoil flavor -> entrepreneurs ● 1759- Josiah Wedgwood (son of a potter) started his own pottery business ● ^ Still popular today (Wedgwood) ● ^^ Division of labor- divided work into simples tasks= more productivity ● ^^^ Also used molds (rather than potters wheel) to mass-produce high quality porcelain @ low cost= affordable for everyday use B) Mechanization: The Cotton Industry ● Mechanization- use of machines to do work previously done by hand ● Cotton= been growth in China, India, & the Middle E. where it was spun & woven by hand ● ^ Vv soft, cooler, & cleaner than wool -> Europeans love it ● Restrictions on import of cotton cloth led inventors/entrepreneurs to devise cheap mechanical methods 4 spinning cotton thread & weaving cotton cloth (England) ● (1760s)- series of inventions revolutionized the spinning of cotton thread ● ^ Included the spinning jenny (1764), water frame (1769), & the mule (1785) ● ^^ Richard Arkwright invented water frame which makes thread strong enough to use w/o linen ● ^^^ Water frame > complex > spinning jenny ● ^^^^ Samuel Crompton (British) invented the mule- combination of the jenny & water frame + makes a strong thin thread that could be used to make muslin (high quality cotton cloth) ● (1830s)- large textile mills= powered by steam engines C) The Iron Industry ● Iron= used as tools, weapons, household items & etc ● Altho iron declined after Song period (China)- still common & inexpensive in China ● Iron caused deforestation bc of charcoal (used 4 smelting) $$ went up ● Limited wood supplies & high $ of laborers -> iron= rare/valuable outside of China ● (1709)- Abraham Darby discovered coke (coal w/o impurities) could replace charcoal= cheaper ● (1784)- British inventor Henry Cort found a way to remove impurities in coke-iron by “puddling” (stirring molten iron w/ long rods) ● ^ Turn coal -> coke -> wrought iron (soft/malleable iron)= cheaper ● (1790)- 4/5ths of Britain’s iron= made w/ coke while other countries still used coal ● Britain’s iron production increased- 17,000 tons (1740) to 3 million tons (1740) ● (1779)- Abraham Darby III (grandson of 1st Darby) built a bridge of iron across Severn River ● (1851)- Crystal Palace (London)- huge exhibition hall made entirely out of iron & glass ● Availability of cheap iron -> mass production of guns, hardware, & tools ● ^ To reduce labor costs, manufacturers- Eli Whitney (firearms) & Eli Terry (clocks) (Americans)- interchangeable parts ● ^ 19th century- farm equipment & sewing machine industries ● 1850s, Europeans called it “the American system of manufactures” (use of machinery to mass-produce consumer goods w/ identical parts) D) The Steam Engine ● 1st machine that transformed fossil fuel -> mechanical energy= steam engine ● (1702-12)- Thomas Newcomen developed 1st steam engine- device that clear H2o from mines faster than earlier pumps (powered by horses) ● (1764)- James Watt (British), maker of scientific instruments @ Glasgow University,= asked to repair the school’s model of Newcomen engine ● ^ Realized that engine wasted fuel bc the cylinder had to be heated/cooled ● ^^ Developed a separate condenser- where steam can escape -> cylinder= hot & condenser= cold ● (1768) Watt copyrighted idea & w/ Matthew Boulton (iron manufacturer) ->commercial product ● (1781)- Watt invented sun/planet gear- changed back/forth motion into rotary motion (piston- tube that moves up/down against liquid/gas) ● ^ Allowed steam engines to power machinery in flour/cotton mills, pottery factories, & etc ● (1820s)- steam engines= powering textile machinery in Belgium, U.S., & Gr8 Britain ● Robert Fulton’s North River which sailed Hudson River (1807) (btw NYC & Albany, NY) ● ^^ -> Ohio & Mississippi ● (1830)- ≈ 300 steamboats near Mississippi ● Savannah, crossed Atlantic (1819),= sailing ship w/ an auxiliary steam engine that only used 90 hours of it during its 29 day trip ● (1838)- Great Western & the Sirius both crossed Atlantic on steam power alone (< efficient) E) Railroads ● (1804)- Richard Trevithick built an engine that only needed ⅓ coal used by Watt’s design & created < steam-powered vehicles able to

travel on roads/rails (1820s)- England had railways where horses pulled heavy wagons (1829)- owners of Liverpool & Manchester Railway organized a contest btw steam-powered locomotives (train puller) & horse-drawn wagons ● ^ George Stephenson & son Robert won w/ locomotive Rocket- pulled a 20 ton train @ ≈30 mph ● (1850)- Gr8 Britain had 6,087 miles of railroad line ● (1840s)- 6,000 miles of track= from Boston, NY, Philadelphia, & Baltimore ● (1850s)- 21,000 miles of < tracks= laid across Appalachian Mts. to Memphis, St. Louis, & Chicago ● After 1856, a trip from NY to Chicago (would’ve taken 3 weeks by boat/horseback)= now 48 hours ● (1850)- Germany built 3,639 miles of railroad & France built 1,811 miles F) Communication Over Wires ● (1800)- Alessandro Volta (Italian scientist) invented the battery -> electric current ● ^-> electric telegraph (England & America) ● (1837)- Charles Wheatstone & William Cooke (England) introduced a 5 wire telegraph ● ^ American Samuel Morse invented code of dots & dashes- transmitted w/ single wire ● ^^ Morsed convinced Congress to provide $30,000 (≈$800,000 in 2012) to “wire” America (1842) & built telegraph line connecting Baltimore & Washington D.C. ● (1851)- 1st submarine telegraph cable= laid across English Channel from England to France The Impact of the Early Industrial Revolution A) The New Industrial Cities ● Industrialization brought rapid growth of towns & development of megalopolises ● ^ London- 500,000 (1700) to 1,117,000 (1800) to 2,685,000 (1850) ● ^^ Manchester- 20,000 (1758) to 303,000 (18th century) ● ^^^ NY- 100,000 (1815) to 600,000 (1850) ● Wealthy built fine homes, museums, theaters, churches; poor crowded= cheap/small houses ● Sudden population growth, crowding, & lack of municipal services- urban problems < serious ● ^ Inadequate facilities 4 sewage disposal, air & water pollution, + diseases made urban life unhealthy & contributed to high infant mortality & short life expectancy ● ^^ Ppl threw their trash into the streets/rivers/etc + burning coal= problem ● ^^^ Rickets- bone disease caused of lack of sunshine bc of polluted air/skies B) Rural Environments ● Americans transformed their environment faster > Europeans, clearing land, using the soil until= depleted, & moving on ● Industrialization relieved pressure on English environment; agricultural raw materials= replaced by industrial materials or by imports, while use of coke & cheap iron reduced demand for wood ● New transportation systems gr8ly changed rural life ● ^ Toll roads, canals, & railroads linked isolated districts to centers of trade, industry & population C) Working Conditions ● Industrialization -> carpenters, metalworkers, & machinists = gr8 in demand ● Most industrial jobs= unskilled, repetitive, & boring ● ^ Work time didn’t vary w/ seasons or time of day- worked by the clock ● ^^ Gaslighting (manipulation) expanded work day past sunset + workdays= long & few breaks ● Unlike the artisans, factory workers couldn't control their tools, jobs, or working hours ● Women who didn't have servants, worked in their homes- spinning, weaving, sewing, preparing food, washing & other household chores + also farm work- caring for gardens & small animals ● Young woman who wanted jobs= in risk of low pay, drudgery (hard work), & sexual abuse ● Women w/ kids tried to find work @ home- laundry, sewing, embroidery, millinery, or took in lodgers (rented their homes) ● ^ If they worked @ factories - textile mills bc required > strength < metal work, construction & etc ● Average, women earned ⅓ to ½ as much as men ● Single ladies worked to support themselves or to save for marriage ● ^ Married women worked if their husbands= unable to support family ● ^^ Mothers w/ infants either had to leave their kids w/ nurses or bring them to work & drug them ● 1st generation of workers brought their kids to work starting @ 5/6 bc= no school/daycare ● Employers preferred child workers bc= cheaper & docile (obedient) > adults + small to crawl under machines (clean) & tie broken threads ● ^ Arkwright’s cotton mills- 2/3rds of the workers= children ● ≈ Kids= working 14-16 hours a dar &= beaten if they messed up or fell asleep ● Francis Cabot Lowell built cotton mill (Massachusetts)- hired daughters of New England farmers ● ^ Promised decent wages & housing w/ supervision ● Young women (New England)= went on strike -> they= replaced w/ Irish immigrants (willing to get lower wages & worse conditions) ● (1790s)- 700,000 African slaves (US) & as “Cotton Kingdom” expanded -> 3.2 million (1850) D) Changes in Society ● ●

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Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) (British politician) wrote Sybil & The Two Nations ^ Talked about how rich & poor have no connection &=ignorant of each other's habits, thoughts, & feelings + if they lived on different planets

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High wages & low productivity of handloom weavers (1790s) -> developed power looms ^ (1811) handloom weavers’ wages dropped by 1/3rd & (1832) by 2/3rds War (1792-1815)- price of food increased -> widespread hardship (mostly on the poor) (1820s)- $ & public health≈ improved- $ for food, housing, & clothing dropped & wages increased (1847-48)- potato crop in Ireland -> failed -> quarter of Irish population died (famine) & another quarter emigrated to England & N.

America ● ^ When they entered the workforce -> wages fell- middle class benefited ● Britain- landowners (nobles) & merchants shared wealth & influence ● ^ -> (18th century)- new class; entrepreneurs whose $$ came from manufacturing ● ^^ Arkwright & Wedgewood= sons of shopkeepers, craftsmen, or farmers ● ^= self-financed &= able to start cotton spinning or machine building businesses ● B4 IR- wives of merchants= in the family business & widows sometimes manage small businesses ● ^ “Cult of domesticity”- justification in removing middle class women from the business world ● ^^ so they became responsible for the home, servants, kids’ education, & family’s social life ● Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) disagreed & wrote 1st feminist manifesto= Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) New Economic & Political Ideas A) Laissez Faire & Its Critics ● Adam Smith (1723-1790), Scottish economist, wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776)- argued that individuals= allowed to seek personal gain ->= guided by an “invisible hand” -> increase welfare ● ^ Laissez faire “let them do” ● ^^ Gov’t should refrain from interfering in business (except to protect private property)- should allow duty-free trade w/ foreign countries ● ^ By supporting free-market capitalism, Smith challenged economic doctrine & mercantilism -> argued that gov’ts should regulate trade to maximize their stash of metals ● Convinced w/ Smith’s arguments- govt’s (after 1815) dismantled regulations- no foreign competitors ● Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) & David Ricardo (1772-1832) (British) attempted to explain poverty w/o challenging laissez faire ● ^ Said that the cause of workers’ unfortunate situation= population boom -> food & wages fell ● ^^ Said that ^= result of “natural law” & same w/ the wealth of successful businessmen ● ^^^ To them, the only way to prevent famine= delay marriage & practice sexual abstinence ● British philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) believed “the greatest happiness of the great number”= increase if Parliament understood social problems & pass appropriate legislation ● German economist Friedrich List (1789-1846) rejected laissez faire & free trade- British trick “to make the rest of the world, like the Hindus, its serf in all industrial and commercial relations” -> to protect their “infant industries” from competition ● ^ Argued that German states had to raise their taxes (tariff) against imports from Britain ● ^^ -> Zollverein, customs union of most of German states (1834) ● New philosophy- positivism, count of St. Simon (1760-1825) & his disciple Auguste Comte (1798-1857) argued that the scientific method could solve social & technical problems ● ^ Suggested poor= guided by scientists/artists- form communities w/ protection from business leaders ● ^^ Attracted bankers/entrepreneurs- positivism provided investments in railroads, canals, etc ● Brazil & MX= positivism- program of economic development reinforced by police & manipulation- Brazilian flag- “Order and Progress” ● Rebels Karl Marx (1818-1883) & Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) (German intellectuals) ● ^ Argued that the concentration of wealth/power & w/ industrialization -> oppression of workers (proletariat) -> rebellions ● Karl Marx wrote Das Kapital (c) & Friedrich Engels wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) ● ^ Engels’ book argued- dominated by class ranks/proletarians will overthrow bourgeoisie ● ^^ Final words of the book= “Proletarians of all countries unite!” B) Protests & Reforms ● Workers responded to harsh working conditions by changing jobs frequently, not reporting for work, doing poor quality work when not closely watched, &= in riots/strikes ● Workers gradually moved beyond the stage of individual, unorganized resistance to create organizations for collective action: benevolent societies & trade unions ● Mass movements persuaded British gov’t to investigate abuses of industrial life & to offer ameliorative legislation- Factory Act Of 1833, Mines Act of 1842, & repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) ● (Europe)- revolutions of 1848 revealed widespread discontent, but European gov’ts didn’t seek reform thro accommodation The Limits of Industrialization Outside the West A) Egypt ● Muhammad Ali (1769-1849) wanted Egypt’s economy/military to > depend on Ottoman sultan ● ^ He imported advisers/technicians from Europe to build cotton mills, metal factories, shipyards, weapons factories, & etc ● ^^ To pay ^- peasants grew wheat & cotton- gov’t bought @ low $ & Ali taxed imported goods ● Egypt= war w/ Ottoman Empire (1839)- Britain forced Muhammad to eliminate import duties

● ^ Unprotected, Egypt couldn't compete w/ Britain’s cheap products ● Egypt exported raw cotton, imported manufactured goods, &= economic depended on Britain B) India ● Was world’s largest producer & exporter of cotton textiles (handmade by spinners & weavers) but British E. India Co. took over as IR began ● ^ Allowed cheap British factory-made yarn/cloth to sell in markets -> spinners/weavers jobless ● India= exporter of raw materials & importer of British industrial goods -> railroads ● ^ Railroads (mid-1850s) & coal mining to fuel locomotives & installed telegraphs ● (1854)- Cowasjee Nanabhoy Davar (merchant from Bombay) imported an engineer, 4 skilled workers, & many textile machines from Britain & started 1st (India) textile mill C) China ● Qing dynasty had cotton textiles, silks, & other supplies in their markets ● ^ Developed banking & credit mechanisms (long-distance trade) ● Few threats to their borders & trade ● ^ Portuguese & Dutch -> British & French created militarized commercial presences in Asia ● Chinese gov’t focused on production & distribution of food > trade ● (January 1840)- shipyard in Britain launched Nemesis (ship) &= iron hull, flat bottom to navigate in shallow waters, & steam engine -> 1st steam-powered iron gunboat in Asia...