Criminology exam 3 review PDF

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Hate Crime  o

Overview Statistics Hate crime data; victim perspectives (58% race, 30% ethnicity, 25% association, 15% sexual orientation, 13% perceived characteristics, 12% religion, 10% disability)

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Recent Examples Dylan Roof Self-described White Supremacist Killed 9 parishioners at a bible study meeting in Charleston, S.C. Had journal and online manifesto espousing hatred towards Blacks Told jurors he wanted to start a race war Chose the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church because of its spiritual and symbolic importance to the Black community New York Stabbing (March 23th 2017) White army vet (James Jackson, 28) intent on killing black men Deep seated hatred for black men, especially those romantically involved with white women Told police of racist views and detailed them on his computer  Evidence Victim: Timothy Caughan, age 66, chosen at random, murdered by him driving a sword through him Traveled to NY to maximize media coverage of his heinous crime

James Byrd/ Matthew Shepard - more examples James Byrd murdered by white supremacists  June 7, 1998; midnight  Bill King, Brewer, Berry rode around in a pick up truck, drinking beer, "looking for women"  Spotted man on the road  Offered James Byrd a ride  3AM; forced him out of the truck, beat him up, spray painted his face black  Forced Byrd behind the truck, placed a logging chain around him and dragged him for more than 2 miles, decapitated. Hate crimes tend to be excessively brutal, want the victim to suffer as much as possible Hate crimes often perpetrated on random strangers Victim interchangeability - could be anyone that fits the profile Hate crimes often committed by multiple perpetrators working together Matthew Shepard assaulted because assumed to be gay  October 9, 1998; bicyclist in rural area of Laramie, Wyoming thought he saw a scarecrow tied to a fence. In getting closer he saw the burned, battered and nearly dead body of Matthew Shepard  Shepard = 22 year old student at University of Wyoming  That evening he went to a meeting of the LGBT association  Then he went to a bar

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Shepard begged for his life They stole his wallet and shoes and he was found 18 hours later 5 days later, he died from his injuries McKinney was found guilty of a felony murder (two consecutive terms without possibility of parole) Along with Byrd murder, the Shepard murder spawned key federal hate crime legislation

Definition Hate or bias crimes are violent acts directed toward a particular person or members of a group merely because the targets share a discernable racial, ethnic, religious, or gender characteristic (Siegel 2004). An ordinary crime becomes a hate crime when offenders choose a victim because of some characteristic and provide evidence that hate prompted them to commit the crime (Harlow 2005). Culture of Hate Hatred is expressed in mass culture  Art  Music  Religion  Humor "culture of hate" = a persons group affiliation continues to provide a basis for dehumanizing and insulting treatment

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Types of Hate Crimes (Levin & McDevitt 2002) Thrill seeking - most common No precipitating incident Looking to harass those who are "different" Psychological payoff: thrill of making someone suffer Social payoff: friends may approve  Groups Example, property Interchangeability of victims  Within group  Across groups = vulnerable Homosexuality Secondary victimization Defensive Hate Crimes Reaction to what the perpetrator considers a precipitating or triggering incident to serve as a catalyst for the expression of their anger  Rationalized by the perpetrator to "protect" their community from "outsiders" Primary victims = people of color Target = a particular individual or set of individuals who are perceived to constitute a personal threat Still an element of interchangeability

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Victims; it could happen again Defensive hate crimes: sense of entitlement Perpetrators may have symbolic loss of … Mission Hate Crimes - rarest kind Is an attack carried out by individuals with a mission; they seek to rid the world of "evil" by disposing of members of a despised group Perpetrator believe he/she has a high-order purpose in carrying out his/her crime Seek to eliminate "entire category"  Ex. Marc Lepine (1989)  University of Montreal, engineering school  Ordered male students to leave, left female students behind

Hate Crimes Legislation (Jeness 2009) 2009 Matthew Shepard & James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes & Prevention Act  Expands 1969 federal hate crime law to include crimes motivated by a victims actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity or disability Hate Crimes Statistics Act (1990)  Law required data be gathered "about crimes that manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, religion, sexual orientation or ethnicity 1994 - violent crime control & enforcement act 1994 - violence against women act specified "all persons within the united states shall have the right to be free from crimes of violence motivated by gender" 1994 - hate crimes sentencing enhancement act (HCSEA) to increase penalties for crimes committed for bias-motivated reasons State Laws: by 2008 the US federal government and almost every state had adopted a hate crime law Hate Crimes Data 1997: questions developed for NCVS to identify victims of hate crimes Data on NCVS reported hate crimes defined as those incidents in which victims believe the offender selected them for a victimization because of one or more of their personal characteristics NCVS definition requires corroborating evidence of hate motivation at the incident  The offender used derogatory language  The offender left hate symbols  The police confirmed that a hate crime had taken place Males had a higher hate crime victimization rate than women Persons of two or more races had highest hate crime victimization of any race/ethnicity Young persons (12-24) had the highest hate crime victimization rates than older persons Those in low income households had higher hate crime victimization rates than those with higher incomes

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Enforcement Issues (Jeness 2009) Pg. 531 chart Shows the distribution of agency responses to bias crimes; most have special policies, followed by assigned personnel, followed by special units (least common) *only 44% of hate crimes reported to the police (NCVS data)

Family Violence

Cycle of Violence (Widom article - 1989)

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Cycle of violence hypothesis: when abused children become abusers and when victims of violence become violent offenders… Cycle of violence may refer to abuse as a child leading to abuse as a parent (many do not later engage in violence). Or child abuse can lead to delinquent behaviors (violent acts). Physical abuse: when an individual “knowingly and willfully inflicted unnecessary severe corporal punishment” or “unnecessary physical suffering” upon a child or children (ex. striking, punching, kicking, biting, throwing, or burning).; COMMISSION Sexual abuse: involves a variety of charges ranging from relatively non-specific once “assault and batter to with intent to gratify sexual desires” to more specific and detailed charges of “fondling and touching in an obscene manner.; COMMISSION Neglect: refers to cases in which the court found a child to have no proper parent care or guardianship; OMISSION  to be destitute or homeless or to be living in a physically dangerous environment  neglect reflects a judgment that the behavior represents a serious omission by the parents Widom’s study design is notable:  Prospective study (not retrospective) – follow them over the life course  Separate abused and neglected groups  Matched cohort design – incorporated a control group, and matched non-abused kids in the community to kids who were abused by race, age, gender, socioeconomic status Findings:  Through multivariate analyses found that those who had experienced physical abuse and neglect showed higher levels of violence in adulthood  Those who had been sexually assaulted did not show elevated violence in adulthood  Support for cycle of violence limited to physical abuse and neglect, not sexual abuse.

Other issues around Child Abuse

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Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (1974) Mandates among other things collection of data, now archived through the National Child Abuse and Neglect System (NCANDS) with yearly reports Strauss and colleagues: Conflict Tactics Scales

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Frequency with which caregivers (parents) use corporal punishment (i.e. hitting, shoving, spanking child) and more extreme forms (kicking, biting, beating up child, burning child). Substantiated (confirmed by authorities) vs. self-report (did not come to attention of authorities, often retrospectively reported). CTS →IPV (Intimate Partner Violence); CTS →Parent-to-child aggression Reported Rates Different sources yield different rate estimates Highest rates of child abuse found in self-report studies. 1995 data: CTS on corporal punishment: rate of 614/1000 children But lower rates for severe assault at 49 per 1000 children. Gender Mothers and fathers punish sons more often than daughters, and fathers punished both sons and daughters more than mothers. -but mixed data: some other data find mothers punish more than fathers. (p 147) Females at higher risk of sexual abuse than boys, but boys at higher risk of emotional neglect and serious injury than girls Race & Ethnicity Over-representation of ethnic minorities in child welfare and juvenile justice systems Consider issues of institutional racism (p 149); Child Protective Services screen in African American children, but screen out White children Theories in Relation to Child Abuse Context: Neighborhood factors can be influential. Ecological approach: multiple factors at different levels of analysis shape child abuse. Disadvantaged Neighborhood conditions (see p. 152). 1. Social Learning Theory: intergenerational transmission of violence (see Widom study) 2. Strain & Stress Theories: family stressors (unemployment, poverty). Mixed support Criminal Justice System Responses For child maltreatment, first level of response is from social services system But some child maltreatment cases involve the police and are investigated in the criminal justice system (p. 154)

Intimate Partner Violence o  

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Johnson (1995): Two types of Intimate Partner Violence Patriarchal Terrorism “men have a right to control their women, and one way they can do this is through violence”; making them have no friends; making them economically dependent More feminist focused research Common Couple Violence Injuries higher among women Family Violence

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Co-occurring partner violence and child abuse When adults in the household have been victimized, risk of child victimization increases. Exposure to violence (direct & indirect victimization)

Gangs- violence o o o o o o o

Shakur’s Monster (1993) Autobiographical account of becoming a gang member (Crip); initiated by shooting someone Eleven years old “courted in/jumped in”: role of violence Label: Monster– had to consistently be more vicious to live up to that name O.G. status, three stages Emphasis on reputation Where gender is involved, inequality is present – because some women join through sexual acts and then are looked down upon because they didn’t show their violent skills

Homicide & Assaults  o o   o o o  o    o o

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Rosenfield article Patterns of homicide & assault US is higher than other developed nations May be due to firearm availability Take into account racial & other disparities, economic inequalities Males are more likely to experience assaults & homicide than women Blacks are more likely to experience than whites Victim-offender relationship: Women are more likely to know the offender than men Macro-level theory Social disorganization Cultural deviance

Routine Activities Theory Used to explain patterns of victimization 3 parts to Venn diagram  Suitable target  Motivated offender  Absence of capable guardianship Rosenfield article: ecampus Patterns and trends in homicide and assault Cross-national comparisons; US higher than other developed nations This is not true though for non-lethal assault Males more likely to experience homicide and assaults than whites Victim-offender relationship Women are more likely than men to be victims of homicide in intimate partner violence relationships than men

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Micro - level theories look at individuals and family circumstances Macro - explains cross-national differences

White Collar Crimes  o   o 

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White collar crime: Occupational v. Organizational Sutherland White Collar Crime (1949) Crucial to drawing attention to white collar crime "a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation" (1949). Definitions: Occupational v. Organizational Occupational - done often by an individual but could be done by a group of individuals, and is done for personal gain  Embezzlement; tends to be a solo activity  Employee theft & pilferage  Causes: employee dissatisfaction, culture of the workplace (neutralization)  Fraud in professions; overbilling  Autonomy, who is monitoring the professional  Financial fraud; insider trading  Police & political corruption Organizational/Corporate - might derive some personal benefit but are trying to benefit & advance the company  Financial:  Corporate fraud, cheating, corruption  Ex. Enron  Exaggerated its assets to hide its losses & increase its profits  Violence:  Workers and unsafe workplaces  Consumers and unsafe products  Cause illness, injury, or death  Ex. Ford Pinto (1971)  Ford knew that it had a defective gas tank that could easily explode & burst into flames, but they did a cost benefit analysis to see how much it would cost to fix the cars v. how much it would cost to settle law suits

Other Definitions Sutherlands definition pertained to characteristics of the actor: "offender based definition" (Benson & Simpson, 2009)  Only certain people can commit white collar crimes  Controversy:  Whether the offenders social status matters'' Offense-based approach: the definition is based on the nature of the illegal act (Benson & Simpson, 2009).

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White collar crime is an illegal act or series of illegal acts committed by non-physical means and by the concealment or guile to obtain money or property, to avoid the payment or loss of money or property Shapiro: white collar crimes involve the abuse of trust. Levi Article on e-campus Details on financial crimes/economic crime Box 9.2 on page 255 Based on whose interests are affected Costs: Economic damage (ex. Being able to restore individual and corporate victims pre-crime economic welfare level)  Look at levels of cost involved; page 227 Psychological and health damage (includes concerns about future security and welfare). How are Financial Crimes organized? See box 9.2 Types of fraud? A fraud against businesses  Accounting manipulation  Can be done by clerical staff, insufficient monitoring  Insider abuse of trust (definition & example) pg. 232  Bankruptcy and other credit frauds (obtain goods on credit not paid)  Insurance frauds A fraud against individuals  Consumer scans (emails, telephone, letters)  Fraudulent investment schemes (page 235) Frauds against the public sector  Frauds against the government (taxpayers and government services recipient) vary by activities in public ownership  US has more activities in private ownership, see comparisons with other countries (page 236). Sentences: Table 9.1

Patterning of White Collar Crime Benson & Simpson, 2009 - Who is the White-collar offender? Nature of white collar crime:  Features of white collar offenses  Legitimate access  Spatial separation  Superficial appearance of legitimacy  Techniques for committing white collar crimes  Deception  Abuse of trust  Concealment and conspiracy

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Costs of White Collar Crime

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Explaining White Collar Crime Not economic deprivation American Dream = economic success Capitalism (Passas) Corporate culture & learning theories Clinard & Yeager (1980); culture of corporation and illegal behavior Self-control view Social capital

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Preventing/Reducing White Collar Crime Media Budgets for regulatory agencies Compliance v. deterrence

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Public Order Crimes  o o o  o o o o  o o o o o

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Prostitution Definitions: involves an exchange of sexual activities for economic remuneration with individuals with whom no special relationship exists Focuses on sellers -- females Usually monetary exchange 4 Legal Paradigms on Prostitution: Prohibition - prostitution as crime  Sex worker is most often arrested & prosecuted Abolition - women are victims Decriminalization - prostitution as work  Different feminist views Legalization or regulation Patterns & Trends in Prostitution: National data tend to be limited Current techniques focus on most visible forms of prostitution, biased samples (street workers) UCR data (type 2 crimes): arrests for prostitution Women were 64.2% of those arrested in this category But keep in mind that of all FEMALE arrests this group constitutes 1.6% of all women arrested Public Order Crimes Morality v. Protection Category of crimes also called consensual crimes, vice crimes, public-order, and victimless crimes Male involvement  NIBRS system: 53% of adults arrested for prostitution were male and 47% female. Only those arrested

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NCVS: prostitution as a public order crime seen as victimless, therefore not asked about in this data source. National Patterns in Arrest Data Miller pg 555, table 22.1  Male arrests under 18 from 2002-2006  Down -20.3%  Female arrests under 18 from the same time period  Up 37.3%  Younger females are at risk Compare race and ethnic distributions in prostitution arrests and drug arrests  All arrests:  white prostitution < drug  African Americans, prostitution similar to drug  Under age 18:  white prostitution < drug  African Americans, prostitution > drug Other issues: Law enforcement focuses on most visible venues (street workers) 1020% of sex workers on the streets Stratification in sex workers, and again disparities by race and ethnicity 16% of men had purchased sex in early 1990s (page 561) Causes, Correlations, and Consequences: Primary motivation for selling = economic Childhood violence, neglect and abuse often in prostitute's background Sex workers are targeted for enforcement; when clients are targeted with penalties are less sever: focus is on education. (diversion programs called "john schools") Harm Reduction = public health model of prostitution  Goal is to reduce net health harms involved.

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Miller (2009) reading on e-reserve (on prostitution)

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Debate on Public Order Crimes Do the laws against consensual crimes do more harm than good? Influence police/official corruption Lead consensual offenders to commit other types of crime Generate public disrespect for the law Divert time, energy and money from more serious crimes Provide revenue for organized cr...