Cross Cultural Psyc (357) - Notes (PDF) PDF

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Chapter 1: Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology What is Culture?" - Culture:" - a set of attitudes, behaviours and symbols shared by a large group of people and usually communicated from one generation to the next" What is Cross-Cultural Psychology?" - The critical & comparative study of cultural effects on human psychology" - As a comparative field:" - Any study in cross-cultural psychology draws its conclusions from at least two samples that represent at least two cultural groups." - The act of such comparison requires a particular set of critical skills" - Critical thinking is inseparable from this field of study" Cross-Cultural Psychology vs. Cultural Psychology" - Cross-Cultural Psychology" • examines psychological diversity & the underlying reasons for such diversity " • study the links b/w cultural norms & behaviour & the ways in which particular human activities are influenced by different, sometimes dissimilar social & cultural forces" • distinguish differences as well as universals & phenomena common to all peoples" - Cultural Psychology" • seeks to discover meaningful links b/w a culture & the psychology of individuals living in the culture" • human behaviour is meaningful only when viewed in the sociocultural context in which it occurs" • behaviour & mental processes are essentially the products of an interaction b/w cultures & the individual " Key Definitions" Race: a large group of people distinguished by certain similar & genetically transmitted % % physical characteristics" Ethnicity: a cultural heritage shared by a category of people who also share a common % % ancestral origin, language, & religion" Nation: a large group of people who constitute a legitimate, independent state, & share % a common geographical origin, history, & frequently language" Racial Categories in the United States" • White" • Native American" • Asian" • Black " • Hispanic"

2 Key Definitions: Religious Affiliation" - Indicates an individual’s acceptance of knowledge, beliefs, & practices related to a particular faith" - Breakdown of religion in Canada (Stats Canada, 2011)" • Christianity: 67.3% (Catholicism largest religious group)" • Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, & Buddhist: 7.2% (Muslim being largest group, w/ 3.2%)" • Jewish: 1%" • Traditional indigenous spirituality: > 1%" • Other religions: > 1%" • No religious affiliation: 23.9%" Knowledge in Cross-Cultural Psychology" 1. Scientific Knowledge:" • % Accumulated through research, systematic empirical observation, & evaluation of a wide range of psychological phenomena." • Facts are obtained w/ the help of scientific research methodologies & rigorous verification by multiple sources." 2. Folk Theories (or popular beliefs)" • Everyday assumptions about psychological phenomena." • Such assumptions are often expressed in the form of beliefs, evaluations, or prescriptions." 3. Ideological or Value-Based Knowledge" • A consistent set of beliefs about the world, the nature of good and evil, right and wrong, & the purpose of human life - all based on certain organizing principle or central idea. " 4. Legal Knowledge" • Encapsulated in the law & detailed in rules & principles related to psychological functioning of individuals." • These rules are commonly established by legal authorities." % % " The Impact of Knowledge on Culture & Behaviour KNOWLEDGE

POPULAR

"

IDEOLOGY

SCIENTIFIC

CULTURE

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

LEGAL

% "

%

"

3 Key Definitions: Traditional Culture" - The term used to describe cultures based largely on beliefs, rules, symbols & principles established:" • predominantly in the past" • confined in local or regional boundaries" • restricting" • mostly intolerant to social innovations" Key Definitions: Non-Traditional Culture" - The term used to describe cultures based largely on modern beliefs, rules, symbols and principles:" • relatively open to other cultures" • absorbing & dynamic" • science-based & technology-driven" • relatively tolerant to social innovations" Comparison b/w traditional & non-non-traditional cultures" Traditional Cultures" • Most social roles are prescribes to individuals." • In evaluation of individuals behaviour, the emphasis is placed on custom & routine." • There is a clear distinction b/w good & evil in human behaviour." • Truth is not debatable; it is established & does not change." • Individuals’ choices are restricted to the boundaries of social prescriptions. Ex: premarital, extramarital & homosexual behaviour are restricted." Non-Traditional Cultures" • Most social roles are achieved by individuals." • In evaluations of individual behaviour, the emphasis is placed on individual choice." • The distinction b/w good & evil in human behaviour is relative." • Truth is revealed through the competition of ideas." • Individuals’ choices are not strongly restricted to the boundaries of social prescriptions. Ex: premarital, extramartial, & homosexual behaviour are generally tolerated." Empirical Examination of Culture" Power Distance: The extent to which the members of a society accept the power in % % institutions & organized is distributed unequally." Uncertainty Orientation: Common ways in which people handle uncertainty in their % % daily situation & lives in general." Uncertainty Avoidance: The degree to which the members of a society feel % % % uncomfortable w/ uncertainty & ambiguity." Collectivism: Complex behaviour based on concerns for other people. traditions & % % values they share together." Individualism: Complex behaviour based on concern for oneself & one’s immediate % % family or primary group as opposed to concern for other groups to which one % % belongs. "

% % % % % %

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Collectivism vs. Individualism" - Collectivism & Individualism can be studied in “vertical” social structures meaning people refer to each other from power & achievement standpoints." - Ex: formal contacts b/w a supervisor & an employee, a religious authority & a believer." - Collectivism & Individualism can be studied in “horizontal” social structures meaning people may tolerate equally & benevolence differently in" - Ex: love, partnership, friendship, family communications" Cultural Syndromes" - The pattern, or combination, of shared attitudes, beliefs, categorizations, definitions, norms, & values that is organized around a theme & shared by people in a particular culture. " - Collection of behaviours, attitudes, beliefs in a certain culture. " - Examples of such syndromes include:" • Tightness: particular rules & norms applied to social situations & sanctions applied to those who violate norms." • Cultural Complexity: the number of different cultural elements." • Honor: attitudes & practices that support aggressive actions in the name of selfprotection." Would you suggest other syndromes?" % % % " % % Cross-Cultural Psychology: Approaches"

Natural Science

Humanities

Ecocultural "

Social Sciences

Cultural Mixtures

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The Integrative Approach

Psychological Phenomena studied in Cross-Cultural Psychology

Activity: the individual’s goaldirected interaction w/ the environment, free will & selfdetermination

Availability & Access to Resources

Culture: ideas & practices, how they go about activities

Key Definitions" Indigenous Psychologies: " • The scientific study of the human behaviour & experience that are common in a given indigenous group." • An important characteristic for an indigenous group is its preserves traditional ways of living." Ethnocentrism: " • The view that supports judgements about other ethnic, national & cultural groups & events from the observer’s own ethnic, national, or cultural group’s outlook." Multiculturalism:" • The view that promotes equality for several ethnic or religious groups & the idea that various cultural groups have the right to follow their own values & practices. "

Chapter 2: Critical Thinking in Cross-Cultural Psychology Critical Thinking " - To encourage you to think, question, challenge & contemplate knowledge." • “Think about it”" - Metathinking: a skill learned to analyze your own thoughts, opinions, biases ect.." - Methathoughts: thoughts about thoughts"

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- Potent cognitive strategies to help you explore a problem, analyze it & problemsolve in cross-cultural psychology." To Evaluative Bias of Language: To Describe is to Prescribe"

- The distinction b/w objective description & subjective evaluation is not a clear one." • Words both describe & evaluate!" • Whenever we attempt to describe something or someone, the words we use are often value laden, in that they reflect our own personal likes & dislikes." • So, our use of any particular term serves not only to describe, but also to prescribe what is desired." Evaluative Bias of Language: Antidotes" 1. Remember that describes, especially concerning personality characteristics, can never be entirely objective, impartial, or neutral." 2. Become aware of your own personal values & biases, & how these influence the language that you use." 3. Avoid presenting your value judgements as objective reflections of truth." 4. Recognize how other people’s use of language reveals their own values & biases."

Dichotomous & Continuous Variables" - Dichotomous Variables: phenomena that can & has been divided into two mutually % % exclusive or contradictory categories." • A light switch is either on or off." • An individual was born in Rwanda or he wasn’t." • A person is either male or female (with some exceptions)." • traditional culture vs. modern culture " - Continuous Variables: other phenomena consists of a theoretically infinite number of points lying b/w two polar opposites." • b/w the extremes of black & white there exists a middle ground comprised of innumerable shades of grey" Dichotomous & Continuous Variables: Antidotes" 1. Learn to differentiate b/w variables that are dichotomous & those that are continuous." 2. Remember that most person-related phenomena-such as traits, attitudes, & beliefs-lie along a continuum." 3. When making cross-cultural comparisons, try to avoid artificial or false dichotomies. Collectivism & traditionalism are continuous variables."

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Similarity-Uniqueness Paradox" - All phenomena are both similar & different." - How one sees what is similar & different depends on one’s existing schema." - Which one of the following four words does not belong with the other three?" - Canadian" - Italian" - Cuban" - Hindu" **Could be any answer.**" Similarity-Uniqueness Paradox: The Antidotes" 1. When comparing & contrasting any two phenomena ask yourself, “In what ways are they similar?” & “In what ways are they different?”" 2. Before beginning your evaluation, ask yourself, “What is the purpose of this analysis?” Asking this question will help you choose the most appropriate & relevant dimensions & sorting variables." 3. Carefully & judiciously select the dimensions on which you will evaluate various phenomena. Recognize the dimensions you select will ultimately determine the degree of “similarity” or “uniqueness” displayed b/w the two phenomena." 4. Despite what may appear to be an overwhelming number of similarities b/w two events, always search for & take into account their differences; conversely, regardless of what may seem to be a total absence of commonalities b/w two events, search for & take into account their similarities." 5. Do not allow yourself to be swayed by individuals who maintain that “These events are exactly the same,” or “You can’t compare these events b/c they have absolutely nothing in common.”" The Barnum Effect" A Barnum Statement " • a personality describes about a particular individual or group that is true of practically all human beings; in other words, it is a general statement that has “a little something for everybody.”" The Barnum Effect" • people’s willingness to accept the validity of such overly inclusive & generic appraisals." • The Barnum effect refers to “One-Size-Fits-All” descriptions." • Ex: “Women seek love”, “Men care about success”, “Teenagers want to be seen for who they are.”"

8 The Barnum Effect: The Antiodotes" 1. Learn to differentiate Barnum statements from person-& group-specific descriptions & interpretations." 2. Be aware of the limited utility inherent in Barnum statements. Specifically, remember that although Barnum statements have validity about people in general, they fail to reveal anything distinctive about any given individual or sociocultural group." 3. Whenever feasible & appropriate, make it a point to reduce the Barnum effect by qualifying personality descriptions & interpretations in terms of their magnitude or degree." " The Assimilation Bias" - People appear to possess an innate drive to classify, organize, systemize, group, subgroup, & otherwise structure the world around them." • These can be called a Schema: a cognitive structure that organizes our knowledge, beliefs, & past experiences, thereby providing a framework for understanding new events & future experiences. " - Piaget identified two processes that can help us deal with new information that challenges our existing schemas:" • Accommodation: the process wherein we modify our schema to fit the data." • Assimilation: means to modify the data to fit our schema." - The assimilation bias manifests itself in a wide variety of forms and contexts." • It leads us to rely excessively on vivid, but not necessarily appropriate, information to fill in gaps in our knowledge w/ schema-consistent, but erroneous, information." • Schemas distort our perceptions of reality to make them consistent w/ what we already believe." - As such, the assimilation bias represents a significant obstacle to clear thinking & effective problem-solving." The Assimilation Bias: Antidotes" 1. Do not underestimate the extent to which your prior beliefs, knowledge, & expectancies (schemata) can affect your current experience, impressions, & perceptions." 2. Try to become as aware as possible of schemata that are important to you; awareness of schemata increases your ability to modify them." 3. Experiment with temporarily lowering or altering your “perceptual filters” or “schema-colour glasses” by attempting to understand someone else’s subjective (phenomenological) perceptions & experience. " 4. Learn to differentiate your use of assimilation versus accommodation, particularly when you are faced w/ a discrepancy b/w your belief’s (schemas) & the information (data). Beware of the general tendency to assimilate rather than to accommodate." 5. Prod yourself to accommodate when, out of habit, relax, or just sheer laziness, you would typically be inclined to automatically assimilate."

9 The Representativeness Bias" - Representative Heuristic: Judging whether or not something belongs to a particular category or not." • Ex: Everyone who lives in Calgary listens to Country " • Quick & automatic." • Most commonly seen when you are trying to figure out if someone belongs to a particular group or not." • How do you make such determination?" - Though often accurate, it can also lead ti systematic errors in information processing which results in the representativeness bias." The Representative Bias: The Antidotes" 1. In situations in which you are likely to utilize the representativeness heuristic, make a conscious effort to consider the possibility that the prototype in question might be inaccurate, biased or incomplete." 2. Take into account relevant statistical information, such as a base rates, sample sizes & chance probability." 3. Beware of the natural tendency to overestimate the degree of similarity b/w phenomena & categories." 4. Recognize that your personal attitudes about people & group prototypes can bias your comparisons & subsequent judgements." The Availability Bias" - Based on the availability heuristic - the process of drawing from available & easily accessible instances, frequencies, or likelihoods of memory." • We have a propensity to underuse, discount, or even ignore relevant base-rate information & other abstract statistical facts in favour of more salient & concrete, but usually less reliable, anecdotal evidence." • Becomes a bias when it leads to systematic errors in making such judgements." - W/ respect to sociocultural issues, a significant problem resulting from the availability basis concerns our proclivity to overgeneralize from a few vivid examples or sometimes even just a single vivid instance. " The Availability Bias: The Antidotes" 1. When estimating the frequency or probability of an event, remind yourself not to reach a conclusion based solely on the ease or speed w/ which relevant instances can be retrieved from your memory." 2. Take anecdotal evidence not w/ a grain but with several large shakes of salt. Although personal testimonies & vivid cases may be very persuasive "

10 Fundamental Attribution Error" - We try to explain people’s behaviours based on personality traits, whereas we often minimize (or even ignore) the importance of the particular context or situation." • We conclude personality characteristics resulting from one’s behaviour, & tend to ignore situational factors that contribute to such behaviour." • Ex: homelessness, road rage, avoidance of eye contact, victim blaming" Fundamental Attribution Error: The Antidotes" 1. Do not underestimate the power of external, situational determinants of behaviour." 2. Remember that at any given time how people behave depends both on what they bring to the situation (“who” that are) as well as on the situation itself (“where” they are)." 3. Keep in mind that this attributional error can be reversed, depending on the perceivers point of view. Specifically, although people are prone to underestimate the impact of others’ situations, they tend to overestimate the impact of their own situations." 4. Be sure to take into account both cognitive & motivational biases that are responsible from producing these attributional errors."

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy" - The attitudes & beliefs we hold towards other people can actually produce the behaviours we expect to find (w/ or w/o intention)." - Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) study of Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:" • Told teacher that some of their students would show dramatic spurts in their academic performance during the upcoming school year based on a reliable psychological test - the test did not exist." • Students were selected at random to be these “bloomers”" • Several months later, those who were marked as bloomers did show an improvements in their school work, & their IQ scored even improved." - Ex: booking an appointment with a psychologist, just by booking the appointment they automatically feel better" Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The Antidotes" 1. In all of your social interactions, remember that expectations can, in themselves, create their own reality." 2. Make a conscious effort to become aware of your own expectancies & the ways in which they may lead you to induce those behaviours in others." 3. Do not forget that your own behaviour is not immune to the influence of the selffulfilling prophecy. Specifically, keep in mind that your behaviour can be shaped by the expectations other people have of you." 4. In conducting research, initiate safeguards to reduce the potential impact of expectancy effects. This may be accomplished by, for example, keeping experimenters unaware of (ex., “Blind” to) the specific purpose, goals, or hypotheses of the study."

11 Correlation does not prove Causation" - Correlation: is a statement about the relationship or association b/w two (or more) variables." • If two events are correlated, then the presence of one event provides us with information about the other event." • Correlation acts as a tool for prediction." - BUT a correlation does not necessarily establish a causal relationship b/w the variables." • Causation cannot be proven simply by virtue of a correlation or co-appearance." • There are always other variables at play." Correlation does not prove Causation: The Antidotes" 1. Remember that a correlation or coappearance is not, in it...