Developmental- Psychology- Prelim-AND- Finals- Reviewer PDF

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DEVELOPMENTALPSYCHOLOGY(PRELIM)CHAPTER 1: BASICCONCEPTS AND METHODSHuman Development – is a scientiic study of age-related changes in behaviour, thinking, emotion and personality.PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS Augustine of Hippo ( - 430) o Human are born selish and must seek spiritual rebirth. o Individuals s...

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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PRELIM) CHAPTER 1: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS Human Development – is a scientific study of age-related changes in behaviour, thinking, emotion and personality. PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS  Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430) o Human are born selfish and must seek spiritual rebirth. o Individuals struggle to overcome immortal actions. o He said that free will was weakened but not destroyed by original sin. INNATE GOODNESS  Jean Jacques – Rousseau o Emphasis on children and basic goodness of human nature

o Nurturance and protection needed. (to reach their full potential) o Children’s environment interferes or encourages. o CHILDREN AS INHERENTLY GOOD THE BLANK STATE (TABULA RASA)  John Locke o Empiricism – involves the claim that knowledge comes from and that experience there are no innate ideas that are with us when are born. o Children as passive recipients of environmental experiences o Individual differences due to experience. EARLY SCIENTIFIC THEORIES  Charles Darwin o First organized study of human development

o Interplay of genetics and environmental adaptation o Detailed records of his own children early years. FIRST SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

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  G. Stanley Hall o Psychologist o Emphasis on norms or average at which developmental milestones occur “storm” and o Coined “stress” adolescence  Arnold Gessell o Maturation occurs “naturally” from genetically programmed sequence o Used movie cameras, one-way mirrors  Paul Baltes o Multi-contexual nature of development o Plasticity and adaptability at all ages

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o Interdisciplinary perspective and research o With age, strategies used to maximize gain and compensate for losses Nature – inborn propensities; biological influences; Nurture – learning from environmental experiences; internal models of experience; Continuity – quantitative change in amount or degree; Discontinuity – qualitative; step-like change

CHAPTER II : THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

 Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud) o Patients memories used as primary source material. o Three personality types – ego, id and super ego

o Psychosexual Development  Internal drives and emotions, influence behaviour.  Stages - oral, anal, phallic, latency and genitals

o Childhood – adulthood transition influential

LEARNING THEORIES

 Psychosocial (Erik Erikson)

Theory

o Development influenced by common cultural demands and internal drives o Each psychosocial stage requires solution of a crisis o Stages – first four stages form adult personality foundation

 Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) o Learning process that occurs associations between environmental stimulus and naturally occurring stimulus o Reflex: stimulus – response connection o Learned: conditioned stimulus elicits conditioned response

 Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

o Deals with modification of voluntary behaviour o Behaviours dependent on reinforcement  Positive reinforcement  Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction

 Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura) o Observational Learning or Modeling  Learning results from seeing a model reinforced or punished for behaviour o Dependent factors memory, capabilities motivation)

on four (attention, physical and

o Self Efficacy – people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce effects

COGNITIVE THEORIES  Cognitive Theory (Jean Piaget) o Development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations. o Cognitive Developmental Stages (Sensori-motor Stage, Preoperational Stage, Concrete Operational Stage and Formal Operational Stage)

 Socio – Cultural Theory (Vgotsky) o complex forms of thinking have their origins in social interactions, not private explorations.

o Children learn new cognitive skills guided by a more skilled partner. o Zone of proximal development

o Explain development in terms of relationship between people and their environment.

 Information – Processing Development o Computer used as a model to explain how mind manages information

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BIOLOGICAL THEORIES Behavioural Genetics o Examines genetic underpinnings of behavioural phenotypes. Ethnology o Examines genetically determined mechanisms that promote survival through natural selection. Sociology o Application of evolution theory to social behaviour

CHAPTER III: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH Process of Conception  Ovum (female Egg cell)  Sperm (Male)  Zygote (combination of genes from mother and father) Chromosomes  DNA  Genes

 Bioecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)

Chromosomes Determination)

(Sex

 Autosomes – genetic information (22)  Sex Chromosomes (X, Y) – (1)

Chromosomal Differences  Androgens (dictate the male; development of male genitals) and SRY genes (signal; SRY genes on the Y chromosomes control prenatal sexual development)  Sex Chromosomes  Gonad Development (if present, testes in male; if not, ovary in female) Multiple Births (Twins)  Identical Twins (Monozygotic) – arising from one zygote  Fraternal Twins (Dizygotic) – two different zygote – like other siblings they don’t possess same genetic materials like monozygotic  Semi-Identical (different genes from father)

How Genes Development

Influence

 Genotype: Genetic blueprint  Phenotype: Observable Characteristics  Dominant – Recessive Pattern  Polygenic Inheritance – comes in many genes (e.g. eye colour, flat – footed) Other types of Inheritance  Genomic Imprinting – some genes biochemically marked at the time ovary and sperm develop  Mitochondrial Inheritance – genes in mitochondria

Multi – factorial Inheritance (MFI)  Inheritance affected by genes and environment Genetic Disorder  Autosomal Disorders – one of 22 pairs of sex chromosomes that are

involved in sex determination o Autosomal Recessive Disorder – 2 copies of the abnormal gene must be present for the disease or trait to develop  Phenylketonuria – inability of a child to digest amino acids which will cause intellectual disability  Sickle – cell Disease – red blood cell is deformed because of its shaped, it cannot carry enough oxygen.  Tay – sach’s Disease – the baby will likely have an intellectual disability and be blind; may not survive as the age of 3. o Autosomal Dominant Disorder – abnormal gene from 1 parent sufficient to inherit disease or trait

 Huntington’s Disease – usually not diagnose until adolescence and this disorder cause the brain to deteriorate and affect the psychological and motor function. Sex – linked Disorders – caused by recessive genes on X chromosomes; common on male.  Red – Green Colour Blindness  Hemophilia – they lack the chemical component that will cause the blood to clot. If they bleed, it will not stop naturally and cause to death.  Fragile X Syndrome – the X chromosome is fragile or damaged. The person may have intellectual ability and some of the physical abnormalities/facial features. Sex Disorders

Chromosome

 XXY: Klinefelter Syndrome  XO: Turner Syndrome – anomatically female;  XYY: Boy with an extra Y  XXX: Girls with an extra X  Trisomy 21: Down Syndrome Trisomies chromosomes, usual pair

– rather

three than

Monosomies – absence of one member of chromosome pair PREGNANCY AND PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

 Cervix will thicken and secretes mucus to protect the embryo  Missed Periods and breast enlargement CARE o Regular prenatal care critical at this time PROBLEMS o Ectopic Pregnancy – implanted I none of the fallopian tubes of the mother. o Bleeding o Miscarriage (spontaneous abortion)

Pregnancy  a physical condition in which a human’s body is nurturing and developing embryo or fetus.  Divided into 3 periods of months called trimester. First Trimester  Zygote implants in the lining of the woman’s uterus

Second Trimester (Week 12 to Week 24)  The morning sickness disappears  Increase in appetite; showing of the baby bump  Can feel the fetal movements (during 16 – 18 weeks) CARE

o Monthly doctor visits continue o Ultrasound test is performed, the sex of the baby can be determined by the 12th week PROBLEMS o Gestational Diabetes – only happens during pregnancy; o RH Incompability o Increased blood pressure

Third Trimester (25 th week)  The woman’s breast begins to secrete a substance called colostrum in preparation for nursing the baby  Weight gain and abdominal enlargement – main experiences in this period

 Emotional connection between the mother and child grows  Fetal hiccups and thumb – sucking visible in sonogram  Fetal has regular activity and rest periods CARE o Weekly visits (begins in 32th week) as near childbirth o Ultrasound to assess position, pelvic exam to check cervical dilation PROBLEMS o Increased blood pressure o Bleeding, bladder infection o Premature Labor

PRENATAL EXPERIENCE (from the perspective of the baby) GERMINAL STAGE

 Conception to implantation  Blastocysts implants itself in the uterine wall  Specialized cells that will become placenta, umbilical cord and embryo already formed  SPECIALIZED STRUCTURED CELLS o Placenta – an organ that allows oxygen, nutrients and other substances to be transferred between the mother and baby blood so that the baby can be nourished while inside the womb. o Umbilical Cord – an organ that will connect the embryo to the placenta and will carry blood to the baby to the mother and back again; the one being cut during childbirth.

o Amnion Sac – fluid filled sac in which the baby floats. EMBRYONIC STAGE  2 to 8 weeks after conception  Crucial because the body’s organ are formed or called as organogenesis; retuning and refinement of the brain PRINCIPLE CEPHALOCAUDAL PROXIMODISTAL

OF AND

Cephalocaudal Principle – from the head downward Proximodistal Principle – development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

FETAL STAGE  End of week 8 to birth  Refinement of all organs  Fetus can hear or smell

Structures Neuron

of

a

Single

 Cell bodies first to develop (week 12 to 24)  Axons and dendrites develop later (especially final week 12)  Axons continue to increase in size and complexity after birth

 Can remember prenatal stimuli and react accordingly Teratogen – substance that can damage embryo (virus, radioactive material and drugs) Women over 35 have higher risks for pregnancy complications

Prenatal Sex Differences  Male o More physically active o Higher rates of miscarriage o More vulnerable to prenatal problems  Female o More sensitive to external stimulation o More rapid skeletal development Prenatal Behavior  Fetuses can differentiate between familiar and noel stimuli by 32 to 33 weeks

Physical Process of Birth Labor Stages Stage 1  Contradictions  Dilation of the cervix Stage 2  Actual baby

delivery

of

the

Stage 3  Delivery of the placenta and umbilical cord Why are caesarean deliveries performed?  Fetal distress  Breech presentation

 Birth size  Poor progress during labor  Mother’s health and age concerns Assessing the Neonate  APGAR scale  Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (FINALS) CHAPTER 11: PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Adolescence – transitional time between childhood and adulthood; tremendous physical growth and cognitive growth; time of risk-taking and opportunity; PHYSICAL CHANGES

In the Brain Two major growth spurts in teenage years:  13-15 years - The cerebral cortex becomes more thicker, and the neuronal pathways becomes more efficient - Largely related part of brain control spatial perceptions and motor functions - Also associated in the profound changes in prefrontal cortex that is responsible for executive processing, a set of information-processing skills  Begins around age 17 and continues to adulthood o In this time, the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex are the focus of the development, this area of the brain controls logic and planning. o So it is not surprising that the older teens differ from younger teens in terms of how they deal with

problems that require cognitive functions. Other Body Systems: Growth Spurts First Growth Spurt  Cephalocaudal / Proximodistal Patterns ( they are reversed compared to the embryo or fetus, so meaning the first to grow in adult size is the hands and feet, then arms and legs, and lastly the trunk which is the slowest growing part – so the adolescents are awkward or uncoordinated)  Joint development – enables adolescents to achieve coordination that are close to those adults.  Gender Differences Second Growth Spurt  Muscle fibers – becomes more thicker and denser; both boys and girls show increase in strength, but it is much greater in boys;  Heart and Lungs – during teenage years, the

size of it increases and the heart rate drops; the both changes are more marked at boys because of boys’ capacity for sustained physical effort and they have greater endurance.  Body Fat levels – boys have greater endurance because of their lower levels of body fat.  Gender Differences Milestones of Puberty Puberty – changes needed for reproductive maturity  Endocrine Glands  Pituitary gland – the gland that controls all of the body’s other glands;

Milestones of Puberty

 Adrenal androgen  Gender differences Primary Sex Characteristics – the sex organs; female: ovaries, uterus and vagina; male: testes and penis; Secondary Sex Characteristics – body parts such ad breasts in female and changing voice pitch and beard growth in male and growth of body hair in both sexes; Secular Trend – a change that occurs in developing nations when nutrition and health improve — for example, the decline in average age of menarche and the increase in average height for both children and adults that happened between the mid-18th and mid19th centuries in Western countries Sexual Development Girls: Secular Trend

Endocrine Reproductive Overview  Thyroid Gland

and System:

Menarche menstruation

–

in first

 Occurs 2 years after beginning of the other visible signs  Pregnancy can occur after menarche  Secular Trend : Timing of Menarche o Lowering of the age of menarche by 4 months per decade o Due mainly to changes in diet and lifestyle Sexual Boys

Development

in

 Sperm production begins 12 and 14  First ejaculation about age 13 or 14  Genital development and pubic hair development precedes the end of the growth spurt.  Development of beard and voice changes occurs near the end of the sequence. Sexual Girls

Development

in

 Heredity and behavioural factors influence hormonal secretions

 Major body changes before age 11 or 12; consistently more negative body image  Social context influences change Sexual Behavior  Boys more sexually active than girls  Reports of sexual intercourse varies across ethnic groups  Rate declined substantially over last three decades Sexual Behavior : Early Sexuality Social Factors Social Factors    

Poverty Unsupervised by Adults More likely to use alcohol More likely to be abused/neglected

Girls who active

are

sexually

 Early menarche  Low interest in school and school activities  Early dating  History of sexual abuse

Sexual Beliefs

Behavior:

Moral

Activities and moral beliefs influence lower sexual activity among teens who:  Believe premarital sex is wrong  Attend religious activities  Participate in school activities  Do not use alcohol Sexual Behavior Education

and

 Despite school units, teens show ignorance of STDs  Fail to discuss condom use  Abstinence and contraceptive education still controversial in many schools Adolescent Pregnancy  Higher in U.S. than many other industrialized countries.  Far more frequent among older adolescents.  Relative frequency of teens who are unmarried

has increased but teen birth rates have dropped overall. Factors in pregnancy

teenage

 Onset age of sexual activity  Poverty and family influence  Less school success  Less contraception use Adolescent Pregnancy: Children of Teen Mothers Positive Possibilities  Negative effects can be mitigated by support from girl’s own parents  Staying in school and social programs positively help both child and mother Negative Possibilities  Achieve developmental milestones more slowly when infants  Grow up in poverty Sexual Minority Youth Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Adolescents Realization

 Realization begins in middle school  Few accept their homosexuality during adolescence Cause  Prenatal hormone patterns may be causal factor in homosexuality  Twin studies suggest biological basis Transgendered Teens  Transgender teen – Psychological gender differs from their biological sex  Higher rates of depression and suicide  Cause is debated Sensation Seeking – Desire to experience increased levels of arousal (through risky behaviour)  Gain peer acceptance and autonomy from parents  Response to popular media’s messages  Brain growth Tobacco Use

 Fewer teens are regular smokers than generation ago.  Teens who are more likely to smoke are influenced by smoking peers. Eating Disorder – Mental disorder in which eating behaviour goes beyond everyday experiences with trying to lose weight  Anorexia Nervosa – a eating disorder is characterized by extreme dieting, intense fear of gaining weight, and obsessive exercising  Bulimia Nervosa involves an intense concern about weight combined with twiceweekly or more frequent cycles of binge eating followed by purging, through self-induced vomiting, excessive use of laxatives, or excessive exercising Formal Operational Stage – Reasoning logically about abstract concepts

Tasks  Complex reasoning tasks  Metaphors  Decision-making Middle school  Task goals: Based on personal standards and desire to become more competent  Ability goals: Define success in competitive terms Middle School: Grouping

Ability

 Emphasis on ability grouping  Students may change beliefs about individual abilities o High achievers o Low achievers Middle School: School Climate  Perception of school climate  Successful intervention strategies o Mentor o Homeroom teacher o Student teams o Parental involvement

Gender, Ethnicity, Science and Achievement

and Math

 Girls at risk for achievement losses in transition to high school  Gender gap widest among most intellectually talented students  Girls suffer in sciences not offering hands-on activities  Girls often discouraged from taking courses in science Dropping School

Out

of

High

 Links o Ethnicity, peer group, low value on completion, history of academic failure  Profiles o Quiet, disengaged, lowachieving, and poorly adjusted students at high risk  Consequences o Unemployment, lower wages, depression, and increased criminal activity

CHAPTER 12: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE THEORIES OF SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE: FREUD Genital Stage  Primary developmental task: libido channelled into healthy sexual relationship  Psychosexual maturity achieved

ages and social roles  Sense of self become integrated  Identification with peer groups or Inability to have an integrated vi...