Educ 210 lecture notes for quiz 3 PDF

Preview

Summary

lecture notes for psychology of education educ 210 for the 3rd quiz...

Description

Module 9 − Introduction Video Transcript: In Module 9, we will begin by defining the concept of motivation, and exploring the different theoretical explanations for motivation.

We often hear the word “motivation” used in our everyday language. We may say that we are “unmotivated” to study for an upcoming exam, or that we are “motivated” to study for a particular course. What does it mean to be motivated or unmotivated?

Motivation is a complex issue, because there are many sources of motivation. In this module, we will examine various theoretical perspectives of motivation, to help us look at motivation from different perspectives.

One of the theories that we will examine in depth is the Social Cognitive Theory of motivation. Specifically, we will discuss Albert Bandura’s contribution to the understanding of how we learn through observation and modelling.

Next, we will discuss the concept of self-efficacy, and how our perception of our abilities and competencies can influence our choices, and, in turn, motivate and regulate our actions to achieve our goals.

The goals we choose and our effort to mobilize energy and resources to achieve those same goals are often influenced by many factors. Some of these factors may be very personal. For example: • What were your needs and goals when you chose to take this course? • Did you need to take it because it is part of your program? • Which is a greater need for you: getting a high grade, or learning something from this course that would help you to become an effective teacher? • Are you taking this course because you want to understand how one learns, and how one can become a more effective learner?

Another personal factor that influences motivation involves our beliefs and self-perceptions. • Do we see ourselves as capable?

• Do we often think that good things happen to us because we are simply lucky? • Are we likely to blame others when something does not go well? • Do we see ourselves as having control over our destinies? And what about whether we have control over our interests, curiosity, and emotions? • Are we likely to procrastinate when we do not enjoy a task? • When there is fear and anxiety, are we likely to be motivated?

Finally, we will discuss the TARGET model that helps teachers make decisions about how they can influence students’ motivation to learn.

Summary: • What is motivation? • Social cognitive theory and motivation • Understanding and promoting self-efficacy and self-regulation • Learner factors that influence motivation • TARGET to reinforce motivation and success

Module 9 − Topic 1: Definition and Dimensions of Motivation

Audio Transcript:

Motivation is defined as an internal state of arousal, which in turn, directs our energy toward a goal, and sustains our behaviour towards the goal. It is important that, because motivation is an internal state, we cannot really “see” motivation. Motivation is inferred from observable behaviours.

For instance, a teacher may infer that a student is motivated because the student always gets very high marks in the course. Conversely, a teacher may infer that a student is unmotivated because the student misses a lot of classes. These inferences may or may not be accurate evaluations of a student’s level of motivation.

When psychologists study motivation, they often ask the following questions: • What choices do people make through their behaviours? • How long does it take to get started? • How intense or involved are they? • What causes people to persist or give up? • What was the person thinking/feeling during the activity?

A classic definition of motivation focuses on intrinsic motivation vs. extrinsic motivation. When you explore different study strategies so that you can become a better learner, you are driven by intrinsic motivation. When you explore different study strategies because you want to get an “A” in the course, you are driven by extrinsic motivation.

But you would probably say that your motivation may not be so clear-cut. Another dimension of motivation is whether the locus of causality for the action is internal or external. Locus of causality has to do with the underlying reasons of our action or goals, or whether we perceive our actions to be caused by internal or external reasons. We may be very intrinsically motivated to develop better study strategies, because better study strategies will help us to achieve higher grades. In this example, we are driven by an external locus of causality, but we are also intrinsically motivated to achieve our goal. In other words, we have internalized an external cause.

Summary: • Definition of motivation: An internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behaviour • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation • Locus of causality Module 9 − Topic 2: Various Views of Motivation

There are several theoretical explanations of motivation. Recall our earlier discussion of Behavioural Theories, where behaviour is influenced by consequences. Here, a behaviour is likely to be repeated when there is a desirable reward or incentive that motivates us. Behavioural Theory is often associated with extrinsic motivation, because it is the reward or incentive that is the source of our motivation.  Emphasize extrinsic motivation caused by incentives, rewards, and punishment

From the perspective of Cognitive Theories, our behaviours and actions are driven by our natural curiosity and twin drives to search for meaning, and to find solutions to problems that we encounter in our everyday lives. We act in a goal-directed manner to search for information with which to solve problems, or, in Piaget’s terms, to restore equilibration. This perspective of motivation assumes that the source of motivation is intrinsic.  Stress a person’s active search for meaning, understanding, and competence, and the power of the individual’s attributions and interpretations

The sociocultural view of motivation looks at motivation as a way to connect an individual to their community. From this perspective, motivation is related to our interactions with others and our identity within the group. An aspiring writer may work hard to develop their writing skills because they want to be accepted by a community of writers. A student may work hard because they want to be perceived by their teachers and fellow students as a “good” student. In the sociocultural view of motivation, motivation is inherently intrinsic.  Emphasize participation, identities, and interpersonal relations within communities of practice  Legitimate peripheral participation: beginners have a role in the community

In the humanistic view of motivation, humans are driven by the need for self-determination, or in Abraham Maslow’s term, the need for self-actualization. Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs that determines an individual’s sources and direction of motivation. In his theory, he discussed 7 levels of needs:  The first 4 levels are what he called Deficiency Needs, because these needs must be met because they are basic needs. These include the need for survival, the need to be safe, the need to belong and to be accepted, and the need for a strong sense of self-esteem. These basic needs — or Deficiency Needs — must be met before an individual can become motivated to strive for the other 3 levels of Being Needs.  So, what are Being Needs? These are higher level needs for intellectual pursuits, aesthetic appreciation, and self-actualization. Self-actualization is the realization of one’s full potential, to become the most that one can be. According to Maslow’s theory, we are able to strive for selfactualization only when our Deficiency Needs are met.  Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs o Deficiency needs  When met, motivation decreases survival, safety, belonging, self-esteem o Being needs



When met, motivation continues to increase Intellectual achievement, aesthetic appreciation, self-actualization

The social cognitive view of motivation: our motivation is influenced by two factors: 1. Do we expect that we can achieve our goal? 2. What is it worth to us?

We are much more likely to be motivated when we value the goal, and when we believe that the goal is attainable. If getting a B+ is this course is very important to you, and you believe that you can achieve this, you are likely to put a lot of resources and effort into this course. If you are taking a course in a subject that is too challenging for you, and you do not believe that you can do well in that course, your motivation is likely to drop when the low grade in your first quiz reinforces your self-doubt. In the social cognitive view, motivation is influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors.  Integrates both the behavioural and cognitive approaches  Expectancy x Value Theory: Motivation to reach a goal is the product of our expectations for success and the value of the goal to us. (If either is zero, our motivation is zero also.) Module 9 − Topic 2: Modeling and Observational Learning Let’s take an in-depth look at Social Cognitive Theory. In Module 6, we introduced Albert Bandura, who emphasized the importance of learning through observation and modeling. Over the course of Bandura’s long and distinguished career, his views of learning evolved to include the important influence of an individual’s thinking, belief system, expectations, selfregulation in learning and motivation.

 Includes learning from modeling (social) as well as thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and judgments (cognitive)  Explains adaptation, learning, and motivation

Learning by observing others is one of the key elements of Social Cognitive Theory. In Observational Learning, we learn how to perform a behaviour, and we also learn — sometimes vicariously — what will happen to us when we perform the behaviour. In our daily lives, we constantly observe others and their behaviours. Sometimes we learn from our observations; other times what we have observed has had no impact on us.

What are the factors that influence our behaviour and learning? 1. The developmental level of the observer makes a difference. With maturity, we increase our attention span, memory capacity, and are more able to think and to act strategically. Our attention span and memory capacity allow us to “capture” the behaviour that we want to imitate. Being able to think and to act strategically allow us to integrate what we have observed, and to display the behaviour when appropriate. 2. We are more likely to model from someone who represents a positive image — someone who is competent, powerful, heroic, or even glamourous. Teachers are our models in school. Peers are also our models. President Obama inspires African-Americans to achieve. Children learn from stories and action figures to be courageous and brave. And not to mention the power of advertising: celebrities “sell” products! But we also have to remember that models are more influential when we believe that they are just like us. President Obama is bi-racial and was raised by a single-mother, just like any average American. Superman is also an ordinary guy when he is not fighting evil. Celebrities share their personal details, so that they appear to be just like us. 3. In observational learning, the consequences and outcome have a powerful impact. Consistent with Behavioural Theories, outcomes that are desirable send the message that the behaviour is appropriate, and likely to be repeated. If you already value a behaviour, and you observe a positive outcome associated with the behaviour, you are receiving confirmation that it is good to imitate that behaviour. 4. Finally, observers are more likely to imitate a behaviour that is consistent with their own goals and aspirations, AND when they believe that the goals are attainable. Peer models are effective because we tend to share similar goals and aspirations. If I am struggling in mathematics, a good peer model is someone who is also having difficulty in mathematics, but has improved due to hard work.

Observational Learning involves four steps: 1. First, we need to be paying attention to a behaviour when it occurs. While observing a complex sequence of actions, knowing what to pay attention to is important. Children learn from observing each other. That is why children can learn desirable behaviours from their peers, but also undesirable behaviours. 2. Second, retention of what we have observed is critical. Particularly when observing complex sequence of actions in real-life situations, being able to remember all the steps is important. Otherwise, you will not later be able to reproduce the behaviour. 3. Third, to ensure accurate production of a behaviour, we have to have the ability to do so. Sometimes we know what we have to do, but we cannot do it. Practice and repetition are often needed to ensure that production is successful. 4. Finally, this is where motivation comes in: we are not likely to perform a behaviour unless we have the motivation or incentive to do so. Reinforcements that motivate us may be

direct, or vicarious. They could also be in the form of self-reinforcement. Self-reinforcement is related to self-regulation, which is also related to intrinsic motivation. Module 9-- Topic 2: Triarchic Reciprocal Causality

Moving from Observational Learning to Social Cognitive Theory, we recognize that behaviour and learning occurs within a social system, where the individual’s likelihood to imitate a behaviour is influenced by what is happening in their environment.

In Triarchic Reciprocal Causality, the Dynamic interplay between three systems, 3 categories of influences are highlighted: personal, environmental and behavioural. Let’s take a look at each one of these. • Personal factors include our beliefs, expectations, attitudes, and knowledge. o Do I see myself as capable? o What do I do when I encounter challenges? o Do I know what choice(s) I have? o Do I know what to do and how to do it? • Environmental factors have to do with the resources that are available to us, and the consequences of actions. o Who are my role models? o Who are my authority figures? o What feedback do I receive from those around me? o What resources are available to me? o What is valued in my community? • Behavioural factors include individual actions, choices, and verbal statements. o What happens when I put effort into a task? o Does it pay off? o Do I give up when I do not get good grades?

Personal, environment and behavioural factors are in constant interaction. If I see myself as capable and hardworking (personal factors), and I get a lot of support and corrective feedback from my teachers (environmental factors), I am likely to be motivated in my studies. As I put effort in, I also see that I get good results (behaviour), which further motivates me to put more

effort in my learning. In contrast, if I am struggling academically and getting low grades (behaviour), I might start to believe that I am “not smart” (personal), or that the teacher does not like me (environment). These would likely lower my motivation to put effort into my learning. You can see how students with learning challenges are often misperceived as being “unmotivated” or “lazy”. Module 9 − Topic 3: Self-efficacy and Human Agency

Audio Transcript:

Self-efficacy is a set of beliefs about competence. According to Bandura, the kind of predictions that we make about possible outcomes will determine our level of motivation.

Self-efficacy is future-oriented — it says something about how we think we will perform on a particular task. It is a judgment about our personal competence on a particular task.

What are the sources of our self-efficacy?  First, our mastery experiences, or successes, directly increase efficacy; failure lowers it  Second, our physiological and emotional arousal can either propel or inhibit us to act. When we are anxious and worried, we are not likely to see ourselves as self-efficacious. When we are excited and “psyched”, we are more confident, and show a higher level of self-efficacy.  Third, our vicarious experiences are important. Observing a friend whose effort paid off will likely make us feel that we, too, have a chance of success.  Fourth, social persuasion and encouragement from others will increase our self-efficacy. Having someone “believe” in us giving us a “pep talk” can be a strong source of motivation.

Self-efficacy plays a vital role in human agency. Human agency is the capacity to exercise influence over our own lives. How do we do that? By co-ordinating skills, motivation and emotions to reach our goals. In the realm of education, human agency has to do with taking charge of one’s learning. Self-efficacy and human agency are closely linked to motivation, because they influence the choices and goals that we set, and affect how we mobilize our cognitive resources and efforts to achieve our goals.

Summary:  Self-efficacy: Beliefs about personal competence in a given area

 Human agency: o Exercising influence over life events o The ability to make intentional choices, design and execute plans and actions Module 9 − Topic 3: Self-efficacy and Motivation

For students, a strong sense of self-efficacy is associated with high motivation: increased effort and persistence, being able to set realistic and attainable goals, and being able to use effective strategies in learning.

Conversely, a weak or poor sense of self-efficacy is associated with low motivation: not putting the effort in on tasks, giving up quickly when we encounter challenges, setting too easy or too challenging goals, and lacking effective learning strategies.

Self-efficacy is positively correlated with academic achievement: high self-efficacy is associated with higher achievement, and low self-efficacy is associated with lower achievement.  A student’s sense of self-efficacy is associated with: o Effort o Task persistence or avoidance o Goals o Being strategic

Research also shows that a teacher’s sense of efficacy also predicts student achievement. A teacher’s sense of efficacy is the belief that they can reach even difficult students and help them learn. It is one of the few personal characteristics of teachers that are related directly to student achievement. Teachers with a high sense of efficacy are likely to put more effort, and persist longer in helping students who are struggling. They are also less likely to experience burn-out.

What are the sources of a teachers’ sense of efficacy? Research shows that their sense of efficacy is higher when they are in a school community where other teachers and administrators also have high expectations, and where they receive help from their principals in solving instructional and management problems. Most importantly, teachers’ senses of efficacy grow from experiencing real success with students. Module 9 − Topic 3: Self-regulation Audio Transcript:

Self-regulation is an important ability for independent and autonomous learning. Self-regulated learners are meta-cognitively aware of their learning. They are motivated to learn, and they are also strategic learners. Academic self-regulation combines both academic learning skills and self-control to make learning goal-directed and effective.

Self-regulation is prompted by three factors: knowledge, motivation, and volition. Howard Gardner and his colleagues used the terms Skill, Hill, and Will to describe these three factors.  Self-regulated learners have knowledge about how they learn; they are aware of their strengths and needs, and they also have subject-specific academic knowledge. In addition, they also have advanced knowledge about learning strategies.  Self-regulated learners have high motivation to follow through, even when they encounter challenges.  Self-regulated learners have the volition and willpower to sustain attention and effort ...