ERPD Lecture Notes- P - ERPD PDF

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Employability, Research and Professional Development Week Eight Lecture One

Sampling Methods Outlines ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

Sample definitions Purpose of sampling Stages in the selection of a sample Types of sampling in quantitative research Types of sampling in qualitative research

Sampling ★ The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study is such a way that individuals represent the larger group from which they were selected ★ A sample is a smaller (but hopefully) collection of units to determine truths about that population Study population- A set of units, which the researcher can get access, to, and is smaller than the target population Target population- The universe of units from which the sample is to be selected and this is also the population to which the researcher would like to generalise study findings Sampling Frame- The listing of all units in the population from which the sample will be selected

★ Who do you want to generalise to? ○ Theoretical population ★ What population can you get access to? ○ Study population ★ How can you get access to them? ○ Sample frame ★ Who is in your situation? ○ Sample

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Employability, Research and Professional Development

Purpose of Sampling ★ To gather data from the most representative participants of the population in order to make an inference that can be generalised to the population ★ To gather data from the most informative participants if the population in order to provide insights to a phenomenon Stages in the Selection of a Sample Define the target population ↓ Select a sampling frame ↓ Determine if a probability or non-probability sampling method will be chosen ↓ Determine sample size ↓ Select actual sampling units ↓ Conduct fieldwork What do Quantitative Researchers Worry About? ★ ★ ★ ★

I want to know what causes something else I really spend a lot of time wondering how to measure things I wonder how small patterns generalise to big patterns I want to make sure others can repeat my findings

Assumptions of Quantitative Sampling ★ We want to generalise the population ↓ ★ Random events are predictable ↓ ★ We can compare random events to our results Therefore ★ Probability sampling is the best approach What do Qualitative Researchers Worry About? ★ I want to see the world through the eyes of my respondents ★ I want to describe the context in a lot of detail ★ I want to show how social change occurs. I’m interested in how things come to be Page |2

Employability, Research and Professional Development

★ I really want my research approach to be flexible and able to change Assumptions of Qualitative Sampling ★ Social actors are not predictable like objects ↓ ★ Randomise events are irrelevant to social life ↓ ★ Probability sampling is expensive and inefficient Therefore ★ Non-probability sampling is the best approach Types of Samples

Week Eight Lecture Two

Probability Sampling

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Random Sampling Selecting subjects so that all members of a population have an equal and independent chance of being selected 1. Get a list or ‘sampling frame This the hard part, it must not systematically exclude anyone 2. Generate random numbers 3. Select one person per random number Advantages ★ Easy to conduct ★ High probability of achieving a representative sample ★ Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures Disadvantages ★ Identification of all members of the population can be difficult ★ Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult Systematic Sampling Selecting every nth subject from a list of the members of the population Selection Process ★ Identify and define the population ★ Determine the desired sample size ★ Obtain a list of the population ★ Determine what n is equal to by dividing the size of the population by the desired sample size ★ Start at some random place in the population list ★ Take every nth individual on the list Advantages ★ Very easily done Disadvantages ★ Sub groups ★ Some member of the population doesn’t have an equal chance of being included Stratified Random Sampling The population is divided into two or more groups called strata, according to some criterion, such as geographical location, grade level, age or income subsamples, participants are randomly selected from each stratum Page |4

Employability, Research and Professional Development

Selection Process ★ Identify and define the population ★ Determine the desired sample size ★ Identify the variable and subgroups for which you want to guarantee appropriate representation ★ Classify all member of the population as members of one of the identified subgroups Advantages ★ More accurate sample ★ Can be used for both proportional and non-proportional samples ★ Representation of subgroups in the sample Disadvantages ★ Identification of all members of the population can be difficult ★ Identifying of all sub can be difficult Cluster Sampling The processes of randomly selecting intact groups, not individuals within the defined population sharing similar characteristics Cluster are locations within which on intact group of members of the population can be found

Advantages ★ Very useful when population are large and spread over a large geographical region ★ Convenient and expedient ★ Do not need the names of everyone in the population Disadvantages ★ Representation is likely to become an issue

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Week Eight Lecture Three

Non-Probability Sampling Examples ★ Convenience sampling

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★ Snowball sampling ★ Quota sampling ★ Purposive sampling Convenience Sampling The process of including whoever happens to be available at the time called ‘accidental’ or ‘haphazard’ sampling Advantages ★ Easy to find participants Disadvantages ★ Quality of the information in terms of its richness and reliability varies Snowball Sampling ★ Find a few people that are relevant to your topic ★ Ask them to refer you to move Advantages ★ Allows the researcher to reach population that are difficult to sample ★ Cheap and simple ★ No need for planning Disadvantages ★ Community bias ★ Vague overall sampling ★ Wrong anchoring Quota Sampling The process whereby a researcher gathers data from individuals possessing identified characteristics and quotas

Advantages ★ Create accurate sample of the population ★ No sample frame needed Disadvantages ★ People who are less accessible (more difficult to contact, more reluctant to participate) are under represented Page |7

Employability, Research and Professional Development

Purposive Sampling The process whereby the researcher selects a sample based on experience of knowledge of the group to be sampled called a judgement sampling Disadvantages ★ Potential for inaccuracy in the researcher’s criteria and resulting sample selections

Week Nine Lecture One

Ethics in Research/ Research Time Scale Ethics ★ As a field of study ethics addresses the application of moral principles and or ethical standards to human actions- but as has been suggested that is not always clear or universal or adhered

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Employability, Research and Professional Development

★ So why should you concern yourself with ethics in your research? ★ You will fail your dissertation/project if you do adhere to: GOLDEN RULE PBS Ethics Process No primary data collection can be undertaken before the supervisor has approved the plan in writing ★ This is a golden rule to which no one is exempt; students, staff visiting, scholars ★ The ethics process helps us meet this golden rule ★ To adhere to this golden rule, you need to have a working knowledge of issues relevant to research ethics Ethics in Research- Why? ★ To protect rights and welfare of research participation ★ To protect the wider society or community within which the research is being conducted Mechanism of Protection ★ Ethical code (regulation or guideline) based on ethical principle Ethical Principles ★ In research ethical principles help to make and to justify decision ★ Ethical issues are philosophical questions-some actions are thought of as ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ and are often linked to individual moral standards- in research these moral standards are taken away from the individual and given credence through ethical principles Key Issues ★ ★ ★ ★

Voluntary participation and informed consent Risk of harm Confidentiality and anonymity Benefits and harms

Voluntary Participation Consent ★ Presumption that individuals have capacity and right to make free and informed decisions ★ In research= dialogue, process, rights duties, requirements for free and informed consent but research subject ★ Your research cannot proceed without consent Page |9

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★ Consent must be maintained throughout ★ This means that participants have the right to withdraw from the research at any time in the process ★ Respondents need to be clear about what they are constructing to- so you need to make it clear How to Demonstrate You Have Achieved Consent? ★ ★ ★ ★

Information sheet to respondents Consent form Explanation on questionnaire You need to be very clear about your research aims/questions

The way in which consent is sought from people to participate in or otherwise contribute data for research should be appropriate to the research topic and design, and to the ultimate outputs and uses of the analysis. It should recognise in particular the wide variety of data types, collection methods, and the range of people’s possible response and sensitivity. The principle of proportionality should apply, such that the procedures for consent are proportional to the nature of participants and risks involved. Risk of Harm ★ Vulnerable Persons- ethical obligation towards vulnerable person ○ Diminished competencies, diminished decisions- making capacity particularly children- it is very unlikely you will get ethical consent to do research on children ★ Risk of harm to research respondents ○ Is there any risk of physical, psychological harm? ○ Harm their career? ★ Risk of harm to yourself ★ Risk of harm to organisation Confidentiality and Anonymity ★ The right of the individual to privacy is a pre-eminent ethical driver in western societies. In researcher’s relationships to participants this translate into two imperatives: confidentiality and anonymity ★ Anonymity and confidentiality may be defined as: ○ Anonymity refers to concealing the identities of participants in all documents resulting from the research ★ Confidentiality is concerned with who has the right of access to the data provided by the participation

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★ Guaranteeing anonymity and confidentiality ‘research participation should understand how far they will be affected anonymity and confidentiality’ BSA Statement of Ethical Practice Data Protection Act 1998, Which Requires that Information be: ★ Processed fairly and lawfully ★ Obtained and processed for a specified purpose ★ Adequate, relevant and not excessive for the purpose ★ Processed in accordance with rights of data subject ★ Kept secure ★ Not transferred abroad without- adequate protection Confidentiality and Anonymity Quantitative Techniques ★ Can be easier ★ Anonymity of the firm sometimes impossible ★ Pseudonyms common but do not eliminate problem Qualitative Techniques ★ Smaller sample size ★ Informed consent more critical ★ More invasive therefore ethical issues more subtle ★ Tendency to investigate more completely ★ Reliance an observation, interviews, stealthy methods can lull subjects ★ Easy to violate confidentiality and trust ★ Power and status differentials Benefits and Harms ★ ★ ★ ★

Balance critical to ethics of human research Foreseeable harms should not outweigh anticipated benefits Harms- benefits analysis affects welfare and rights of subject If your research is vague, unfocused and lacks rigor in the way it is conducted- then it is lacking in ethical principles- even if it does no harm if it does no ‘good’ (in this sense advancing knowledge) then it should not be started at all

★ Ethics form ○ You may find it helpful to complete an ethics form put in the approach of your research proposal ★ Participation information sheet ○ Helps achieve many of the ethics principles

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○ Provide participants with knowledge of what the research is, what they can expect ★ Consent form ○ Need to be signed by participants before data is collected ○ It states the participants have read the participant information sheet

Week Ten Lecture Two

Literature Review What is a Literature Review? ★ A critical and evaluative account of what has been published on a topic ★ It explains and justifies how your investigation may help answer some of the questions or gaps in this area of research ★ It is not a simple summary of what you have read ★ It is an analysis of what has been discovered about the topic A Good Literature Review Should?

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★ Summarise the literature- a shorter version of the original highlighting the major points (description) ★ Analyse the literature- breaking down a complex topic into parts to gain a better understanding of it- comparing and contrasting the literature ★ Look for gaps in the literature- what has not been written about? ★ Criticise the literature- we will cover that in detail in this session How is a Literature Review Different from an Essay? ★ An essay examines aspects of an issue to answer a question ★ A literature review looks at themes in what has been written about an issue Things to Consider When you are Reading. Being Critical ★ How old is the research you are reading? ○ Does this make findings more or less valid? ★ Where was it conducted? ○ Is it valid in the country that you are researching? ★ What methods have been used in the research you are reading? ○ Do they seem reliable to you? ★ Is their analysis strong enough? Being Critical Thinking about all the issues in the literature: ★ Do all of the authors agree? ★ What is their disagreement about? ★ Why might the difference researchers have different views on the issue? ★ Which seems the most credible to you? ○ Why? ○ Do you know something that influences your views? ○ Do you feel their research methods or analysis have weaknesses? ★ Show areas of disagreement ★ Are there areas that some critics do not address, but others do?

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