EXAM 2 Nutrition Review PDF

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EXAM 2 REVIEW

Chapter 5: Carbohydrates 1. Identify the monosaccharides and the disaccharides they create MONOSACCHARIDES - “one sugar” Create  glucose, fructose, and galactose. They are a class of single sugars that are not broken down further during digestion. Type of simple sugar; (CH20)6 Glucose - dextrose; blood sugar; major monosaccharide found in body Fructose - levulose; fruit, vegetables, honey, high fructose corn syrup Galactose - part of lactose; 3rd major monosaccharide Sugar alcohols - xylitol, mannitol, sorbitol -> sweeteners in sugarless gums and dietetic foods Pentoses - “5 carbons” Ribose and deoxyribose Fructose - 9-11% of energy intake in north americans Honey - 50% fructose, 50% glucose Hexose - “6 sugar/carb” DISACCHARIDES - class of sugars formed by the chemical bonding of 2 monosaccharides. These create maltose, sucrose, and lactose. (CH20)12 Maltose - malt sugar - glucose + glucose; alpha bond Sucrose - table sugar ; maple syrup sugar cane sugar beets - glucose + fructose; alpha bond Lactose - milk sugar - glucose + galactose Condensation reaction: linking of two monosaccharides to form disaccharide Water molecule formed (released) by taking a hydroxyl group (OH) from 1 sugar and a hydrogen (H) from the other sugar Beta bonds - cannot be easily broken down by enzymes for absorption in small intestine -> foods that contain saccharide mole cules linked together by beta bonds don’t digest Alpha bonds -> easily digested 2. Soluble and Insoluble fiber examples and food sources SOLUBLE FIBER - fibers that dissolve in water and can be metabolized by bacteria Examples: pectin(fruits),  gums, mucilages(beans) (viscous  fibers) found inside & around cells

Food sources: jam, jelly, yogurt; occur naturally in plant cells in oat bran, many fruits, legumes, seaweed, and psyllium -slows absorption of glucose from small intestine INSOLUBLE FIBER - fibers not easily dissolved in water or fermented by bacteria in large intestine Examples: cellulose (skins of fruit and veggies) , hemicelluloses (whole grains), lignins (seeds). Location: plant cell walls (fruits and veggies) form structural part of the plants, whole grain Food sources: vegetables, whole grain, seeds of fruits, celery 3. Indigestible carbohydrates and bowel health Oligosaccharides - raffinose and stachyose Polysaccharides - dietary and functional fiber, total fiber

Function of Indigestible Carbohydrates: Promoting bowel health - Diverticulosis -> diverticulitis - Colon cancer -Reducing Obesity Risk -Enhancing blood glucose control -Reducing cholesterol absorption 4. Functions of digestible carbohydrates in the body Provide Energy: 4 kcal/g

Spare protein - Gluconeogenesis Prevents Ketosis (forming of ketone bodies) - Diabetic ketocidosis Digestible Polysaccharides Starch (plants) - amylose, amylopectin, potatoes, beans, breads, pasta, rice Glycogen (animals) - liver & muscle glycogen 5. Carbohydrates, their chemical bonds and digestibility.

Alpha bonds - bonds are easily broken down by digestive enzymes Beta Bonds - bonds not easily broken down (found in complex carbs, fiber) Hydrolysis- reaction that breaks down carbs

Polysaccharides - contain many glucose molecules; digestibility depends of alpha/beta bond Oligosaccharides - raffinose and stachyose; indigestible

6. Carbohydrate digestion and absorption (enzymes involved and understand what is happening to the carbohydrate as they proceed through the process) Carbohydrate Digestion Mouth - some starch is broken down to polysaccharide and disaccharide units by salivary amylase Stomach - salivary amylase is inactivated by acidity in stomach. No further digestion occurs in stomach. Pancreas - pancreatic amylase and dextrinase are secreted into the small intestine to break polysaccharides from starch into disaccharides Small Intestine - enzymes in the wall of the small intestine break down the disaccharides into monosaccharides; most carb digestion occurs here - Pancreatic enzymes (-ase) : breaks down lactose enzymes (lactase), sugar (sucrase reacts on sucrose), and maltase - maltase - maltose -> (glucose + glucose) - sucrase- sucrose -> (glucose + fructose) - Lactase - lactose -> (glucose + galactose) Liver - The absorbed monosaccharides are transported to the liver by the oral vein Large Intestine - some soluble fiber is metabolized into acids and gases by bacteria in the large intestine - Fiber not broken down Rectum & Anus - Insoluble fiber escapes digestion and is excreted in feces

Carbohydrate Absorption Small Intestine - active absorption, facilitated diffusion Transported to Liver - fructose and galactose -> Glucose Storage - glycogen & fat 7. Regulation of blood glucose, types of diabetes and their prevalence. Regulation of Blood Glucose -

Normal Concentration: 70-100mg/dL

Organs involved: Liver - glucose vs glycogen Pancreas - insulin and glucagon; two hormones that regulate blood glucose Insulin - lowers blood glucose Glucagon - starts breakdown of glycogen bc blood levels are too low Adrenal Glands - Epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol Pituitary Gland - Growth hormone The action of insulin is balanced by glucagon, and these other hormones Useful food for managing blood glucose levels: oatmeal, apples, kidney beans Hypoglycemia - low blood glucose Hyperglycemia - high blood glucose Fasting Hypoglycemia - condition of low B.G. after fasting for 8 hours or more and typically caused by an underlying medical condition such as cancer, liver disease, or renal disease Reactive Hypoglycemia - caused by an exaggerated insulin response after eating and develops 2 to 5 hours following a meal Prediabetes - condition in which B.G. levels are above normal but not get diagnostic of diabetes Insulin - decreases blood glucose Glucagon - increases blood glucose Type 1 Diabetes -Family history -Autoimmune disease -Diet must be coordinated with insulin -Increased risk of cardiovascular disease, blindness and kidney disease -Signs & Symptoms:

Treatment: Insulin injections, & Carb counting Type 2 Diabetes easily managed through diet, physical activity, and moderate weight loss; treated through medications and lifestyle modifications. -progressive disease -insulin resistance -risk factors -most common type of diabetes (90% of cases) -Treatment: Diet Physical activity Medications Poorly controlled diabetes can permanently damage eyes, heart, and kidney. 8. Whole grains vs refined grains Whole Grains - contain the whole kernel, including the bran,  germ, and endosperm Refined Grains - foods processed to remove course parts such as the bran and germ which removes the fiber and some vitamins and minerals; loose some of its nutrients; removes coarse parts of the brain (bran and germ) and fiber

Chapter 6: Lipids ❏ Chemical structure and basic characteristics of fatty acids > Chemical Structure - Composed largely of a chain of carbon atoms bonded w/ hydrogen atoms - At one of the terminal ends of a fatty acid is a carboxyl group (-COOH)   > Basic Characteristics -Backbone of triglyceride: a glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids - Esterification - chemical process to make triglycerides from fatty acids; attaching fatty acids to glycerol - De-esterification - occurs if you make a diglyceride - Hydrolysis - release of a fatty acid from glycerol

❏ Identify the food sources of the different fatty acids (monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, saturated fats) and sterols. Sources of omega 6 fatty acids vs omega 3 fatty acids

>Monounsaturated: -Olive oil, canola oil, peanut  oil >Polyunsaturated: - Sunflower oil, corn oil, safflower oil, soy bean oil,fish  oil > Saturated: a. Long  chain: animal fats, Lard; fat in beef, pork, and lamb b.  Medium-short chain: Milk fat (butter),  coconut oil, palm oil, kernel oil Plant sources are not a source of saturated fat > Sterols: - Animal origin, such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs and dairy products > Omega 6 (linoleic acid): -Beef, chicken, eggs, safflower oil, sunflower oil, corn oil > Omega 3 (alpha-linolenic fatty acid):  - cold water fish (salmon), Walnuts, flaxseeds, hemp  oil, canola oil, soybean oil, chia seeds,  NOT AVOCADO ❏ Lipoprotein: their functions, composition and relationship to heart disease (what lipids levels are associated w/ heart disease) > Chylomicrons -transport of dietary triglycerides > VLDLs -formed from VLDL > LDLs - Formed from IDL; contain mostly cholesterol - Increase heart disease risk > HDLs - Pick up and recycle or dispose of cholesterol - Slows heart disease development ❏ Controllable and uncontrollable risk factors of heart disease > Controllable: -Diet (Blood cholesterol levels, blood triglyceride levels), exercise, smoking,hypertension, physical inactivity, obesity, diabetes, liver and kidney disease, and low thyroid hormone levels > Uncontrollable a. Age-- The risk of CVC increases w/ age b. Gender-- Men have a higher chance of having a heart attack c. Genetics-- Having a close relative who died prematurely from CVC, especially before age 50, may increae the risk. d. Race-- Race may affect CVC risk ❏ Ketosis, what it takes > As glucose, they provide a primary source of energy, spare protein from use as an energy source, and prevent ketosis >Cause of ketosis is incomplete breakdown of fatty acids

> Preventing Ketosis Preventing Ketosis A minimal intake of carbohydrates—at least 50 to 100 g/day—is necessary for the complete breakdown of fats to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) in the body ❏ Lipids and the American Diet > Lipids - We usually refer to lipids simply as fats and oils; however, the  lipid family can be further divided into 3 types: triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols. - they all contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and none of them dissolve in water. However, they do dissolve in organic solvents, such as chloroform, benzene, and ether - Triglycerides are the most common type of lipid found in foods and in the body. About  95% of the fats we eat and 95% of the fat stored in the body are in the form of triglycerides. > American Diet ❏ Basics of the Mediterranean Diet > Up to 40% kcal from fat is healthy if mostly MUFA > traditional diet features: - Olive  oil as main fat, olives too - Abundant fruits & vegs, whole grains, beans, nuts, and seeds - Daily intake of small amounts of cheese and yogurt - Weekly fish intake; limited use of eggs and red meat - Regular exercise and rest - Moderate wine intake ❏ Food sources of trans fat > The major  trans fat sources are margarine and baked goods (made w/) shortening, such as cakes, cookies, crackers, pies, and breads >To determine if there’s trans fat in food look for hydrogenated oils ❏ Understand the different pathways of LDL removal (from blood) 1. Receptor Pathway > Removes LDL from the blood by a receptor called B-100 > LDLs taken up by cells, broken down to protein and free cholesterol > Components are used for: - maintaining the cell membrane or, - synthesizing specialized compounds (estrogen, testosterone, vit. D) > Excess in blood becomes oxidized by free radicals >LDL bonds to B100 receptor then taken into cell by use of the cell, and any left over LDL not bonded to receptor is oxidized

2. Scavenger Pathway > certain “scavenger” white blood cells called macrophages leave the bloodstream and embed themselves in blood cells > The macrophages detect LDL, then engulf and digest it > Once engulfed, LDL generally is prevented from reentering the bloodstream > Cholesterol can build up in these scavenger cells and kill them; this results in plaque (atherosclerosis) >oxidized LDL damages anterior wall, signals wbc to become active and engulf oxidized LDL and store it, these cells die which causes more WBCs to come and build up plaque 3. High Density Lipoproteins > Picks up cholesterol throughout the body > Blocks LDL oxidation Which lipoprotein is it best to have a low number of I blood? LDL Which one do you want to be higher? HDL

❏ Lipid digestion, enzymes involved >Lipase - what we have in mouth as babies; not as much as adults that helps with digestion >Gastric Lipase - in stomach; breaks down triglycerides into di & monoglycerides > Small Intestine: primary site for fat digestion

❏ Essential fatty acids, food sources and recommended intakes - linoleic acid (the  major omega-6 fatty acid in food) and alpha-linolenic acid (the major omega-3 fatty acid in food, eventually forms DHA which is an antioxidant) CCK causes release of pancreatic enzymes and also stimulates release of bile which emulsifies fat and forms micelles for pancreatic cells to work on How are long chain fatty acids transported? Lymphatic system Circulatory system transports short and medium fatty acids Which has more cholestrol? Chylomicrons

Chapter 7: Protein ❏ Chemistry structure of proteins -Proteins are made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds Contains hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen Comprised of amino acid chains Amino acid Nitrogen (amino) group Carboxylic (acid) group Hydrogen Side chain (R) Carbon Skeleton - AMINO ACID W/O AMINO GROUP ● Protein organization Alonine Glycine Serine Valine Leucine Lysin Glycine Valine ❏ How amino acids form proteins Peptide bonds thereby formed by a biochemical reaction that extracts a water molecule as it joins the amino group. Polypeptide - anything 10 or more How many in an oligopeptide? 4-9 ❏ Understand Transamination and gluconeogenesis Transamination- is a chemical reaction that transfers an amino group to a keto acid to form new amino acid. It is aso biochemistry is accomplished by enzymes. Transamination - process happens for our body to turn nonessential amino acids into essential amino acids (moving amino group) Gluconeogenesis- is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from certain non-carbohydrate carbon substrates. Gluconeogenesis - process which makes glucose from proteins

❏ Complete vs incomplete proteins, dietary sources, complementary proteins Complete protein- Sources Examples - meat, soy, quinoa, dairy Incomplete Protein- sources Complementary proteins- source PB&J, rice and beans Dietary sources- Needs for 150 Lb person: 150 Lb/ 2.2=68 kg 68kg * 0.8g/kg= 54 grams protein per day ❏ What is positive and negative nitrogen balance and the conditions you would see each -Positive nitrogen balance- situations when positive nitrogen balance occur Growth, pregnancy, recovery stage after illness/ injury, athletic training resulting in increased lean body mass, increased secretion of certain hormones, such as insulin, growth hormone, and testosterone. When someone is in a positive nitrogen balance, you might see growing -Negative nitrogen balance- situations when negative nitrogen balance occur inadequate intake of protein, inadequate such as favor, burns, and infections, bed rest (for several days), deficiency of essential amino acids, increased protein loss, increased secretion of certain hormones, such as thyroid hormone and cortisol. Whenever someone is in a negative nitrogen balance, they are really sick ❏ Define essential and non essential amino acids, how they are synthesized, food sources Essential amino acid- cannot be made by the body and they must come from food. There are 9 essential amino acids: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. Amino acid is an essential because body can’t make it 9 essential amino acids You get them from food Non essential acid- cannot be made by the body. There are 11 nonessential amino acid: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine. ❏ Food Allergies ❏ Calculate the protein for a requirement for a healthy adult when given their body weight

Example- If A is body weight in pounds, then A/2.2 is the conversion of body weight from pounds to kilograms. Let's let B represent your body weight in kilograms. A/2.2 = B 0.8 x B is the RDA of grams of protein needed in the American diet. ❏ Different types of nitrogen balance Positive nitrogen balance Nitrogen equilibrium Negative Nitrogen balance ❏ Protein digestion and absorption, Functions of proteins Digestion Stomach- Hydrochloric acid, pepsin  Small intestine- secretin and CCK released Pancreas- Protease, Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase Absorption- amino acids absorbed- portal vein- liver Amino acid are sued for- protein synthesis Energy needs Conversion to carbohydrate or fat or release into the bloodstream Early Infancy Considerations GI tract immature and permeable Solid food introduction Advised to wait until 12 months to introduce common allergic foods Functions of protein: Producing Vital Body Structures Maintaining Fluid Balance ◦ Edema Contributing to Acid Base Balance ◦ Buffers Forming Hormones, Enzymes, and Neurotransmitters Contributing to Immune Function ◦ Anergy is immune incompetence Transporting Nutrients Forming Glucose ◦ Gluconeogenesis ◦ Muscle wasting is cachexia Providing Energy ◦ 4 kcal/g ❏ Kwashiorkor vs Marasmus Marasmus is a form of severe malnutrition characterized by protein deficiency. It can be distinguished from kwashiorkor in that kwashiorkor is protein deficiency with adequate energy intake whereas marasmus is inadequate energy intake in all forms, including protein. ❏ Food allergies: different types, treatments Eggs Milk Peanuts Tree nuts

Fish Shellfish Wheat Soy ❏ Different types of vegetarians know how they are different Lacto-ovo vegetarians eat both dairy products and eggs. Lacto-vegetarians eat dairy products but avoid eggs. Vegans do not eat dairy products, eggs, or any other products which are derived from animals; lack calcium, Vitamin B12 & D, and riboflavin

Chapter 9: Energy Metabolism ❏ Basics of Oxidation-- Reduction reactions OIL RIG Oxidation Is Loss  of electrons Reduction Is Gain  of electrons Substance oxidized when… loses electrons or hydrogen & gains oxygen Substance reduced when…. Gains electrons and loses oxygen Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Pyruvate ---------------------------------------> Lactate ------------------------------------> Pyruvate 2e- & H+ 2e- & H+ NAD+ -------> NADH + H+ NADH+H+----------->NAD+ Reduced Oxidized -Molecules exchange electrons

Beta Oxidation - breaks down fatty acids; occurs in mitochondria, makes Acetyl coA, NADH, FADH, ATP ATP- Adenosine triphosphate (major energy source for body

Niocin (Vit. B1) - vitamin that helps form NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) oxidized form; reduced form (NADH) Riboflavin (Vit. B3) - Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) formed from this->oxidized form; FADH2->reduced form Glucogenic amino acid can be turned into pyruvate Aketogenic amino acid is turned into acetyl coA Glucose pyruvate -> acetyl coA ❏ Anabolism vs Catabolism 

>Anabolism - Building Insulin - an anabolic hormone because it helps build muscle Smaller to larger Synthesis Requires energy ex.) glycogen Glucose becomes glycogen You consume more energy than body expends Amino acids become your muscles A cookie becomes storing fatty acids Fatty acids become body fat >Catabolism - Breaking it down Larger to smaller Degradation Releases energy ex.) digestion Cracker becoming glucose Fatty acids provide energy Fasting A piece of ham becomes amino acids

❏ Where in the cell does glycolysis, transition reaction, Citric Acid cycle and Electron transport chain take place >Glycolysis - happens in the cytoplasm; cytosol (glucose------> pyruvate) Whenever a substance is reduced it gains electrons >Transition Reaction - mitochondria (pyruvate ----> acetyl-CoA) >Citric Acid Cycle - Mitchondria (acetyl CoA ---> CO2)

>Electron transport chain- inner membrane of mitochondria

❏ Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fat (glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain, beta oxidation, ketosis, gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, lipolysis, ect.) Carbohydrates in Fat Metabolism C...