Exam 3 Study Guide PDF

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UIC Psych 100 Leshikar Exam 3 Study Guide...

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Test Study Guide Monday, November 7, 2016

11:16 PM

Chapter 7: Learning Learning: adaptive process through which experience modifies pre -existing behavior and understanding Classical conditioning: A learned response to some stimulus you don't control • A procedure in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that already triggers a reflex response until the neutral stimulus alone evokes a similar reflex response ○ Neutral stimulus: stimulus that initially does not trigger the reflex ○ Reflex: the swift automatic response to a stimulus • Unconditioned Stimulus: stimulus that already calls for a response without learning • Unconditioned Response: the automatic, unlearned reaction to the UCS. • Conditioned stimulus: begins as a neutral stimulus, but after pairing with the UCS it leads to CS. • Conditioned response: salivating ○ Extinction: when the CR decreases ○ Reconditioning: speedy relearning of the CR after extinction ○ Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of CR after extinction ○ Stimulus Generalization: CR is elicited by stimuli like the CS ○ Stimulus Discrimination: When individuals learn to discriminate among similar stimuli ○ Forward Conditioning: Tone before meat idea ○ Back Conditioning: Beat before tone, learning is unlikely to occur ○ Factors Influencing the Learning of Conditioned Response  Predictability: UCS and CS must reliably appear together to best predict learning  Preparedness: Certain signals or events are especially suited to form associations with other events Operant conditioning: You learn that you can control your environment with certain behaviors • A process where an organism learns to do things that lead to positive consequences and avoids negative ones • Operant: a response that has an effect on the world ○ Reinforcement strengthens behavior ○ Punishment weakens behavior ○ Positive Reinforcer: positive outcome that occurs after a response, making you want to repeat that response ○ Negative Reinforcer: removal of something unpleasant after a response, making that response more likely to be repeated  Taking painkiller to remove toothache ○ Punishment: Presentation of an aversive stimulus or removal of a pleasant one  Punishment I (Positive Punishment): Add unpleasant stimulus  Punishment II (Negative Punishment): Remove pleasant stimulus ○ Conditions that strengthen or weaken Operant Behavior

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Shaping

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Successive approximations

Delay and size

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Immediate rewards create stronger effects Bigger rewards create stronger effects

Schedules of reinforcement □ Continuous reinforcement schedule:  Reinforcement occurs every time □ Intermittent reinforcement schedule  Fixed ratio  Fixed interval  Variable Ratio  Variable Interval

Chapter 8: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence • Cognition: Generic term for higher mental processes ○ Thinking, memory, problem solving, language • Information Processing: ○ Stage 1: sensation ○ Stage 2: perception ○ Stage 3: Decision making ○ Stage 4: Planning a response ○ Stage 5: Executing the response • Measuring Information -Processing ○ Model chronometry: the timing of mental events ○ Reaction time (response time): The time between the appearance of a stimulus and the appearance of a response • Reasoning: the process of drawing conclusions based on facts, beliefs, and experiences that allow you to know something beyond what you perceive ○ Algorithms  Systematic methods that always reach a correct solution to a problem, if a solution exists ○ Rules of Logic  A set of statements to draw conclusions ○ Syllogisms: Logical arguments containing two or more premises and a conclusion ○ Issues with reasoning is it's often impaired by confirmation bias □ Confirmation bias: a tendency for people to seek info that is consistent with your pre-existing conclusions • Thinking Strategies: ○ Heuristics: Time saving mental shortcuts used in reasoning  "rules of thumb" ○ Possibly problematic heuristics  Anchoring and adjustment heuristic: people use info to make an initial judgement and they usually don’t stray from that □ Stuck to one decision  Representativeness heuristic: Judging whether something belongs to a certain group or class because it is similar to other things in that group or class  Availability heuristic: The likelihood of an event or the correctness of a hypothesis is judged by how easily it is brought to mind • Language: an agreed upon construct by which people communicate ○ Properties that distinguish it from other communication forms:  Arbitrary relation between words and things  Generativity □ Rules within the language that allows speakers to produce an infinite number of sentences ○ Two important components of language:

 Symbols: things that we use to represent words □ Letters, morphemes, words  Symbol: the actual symbols we use to represent language  Phoneme: smallest unit of sound that effects speech  Morpheme: smallest unit that has meaning  Words: consist of one or more morphemes □ Language breaks down in the following way: conversation>sentences>phrases> words>morphemes>sounds  Rules: □ Rules about how we produce language □ Syntax, semantics  Syntax: set of rules to form sentences (must have subject and verb)  Semantics: set of rules used for meaning ○ Language and the Brain:  Aphasia: impairment of language abilities that occurs while other mental abilities remain intact  Broca's area: region of the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere of the brain needed to produce speech  Wernicke's area: region in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain needed to understand language and to produce meaningful sentences

Chapter 10: Emotion, Stress, and Health • Emotion: a temporary positive or negative experience that is felt as happening to the self, that is accompanied by a feeling, a thought, and a physiological response ○ Often accompanied by a distinctive accompanying facial expression  Facial Feedback Hypothesis: feedback from the facial muscles directly influences emotional experience ○ Has three components:  Feelings  Thoughts  Bodily arousal ○ Lymbic System (including amygdala) plays an important role in emotion ○ James-Lange (Peripheral) Theory of Emotion:  Physiological responses CAUSE emotion □ EX: See a snake, heart rate rockets, emotion ○ Cannon-Bard (Central) Theory of Emotion  Emotion occurs directly in the brain, with or without signals from our peripheral nervous system • Stress and Stressors: ○ Stress: the negative emotional and physiological process that occurs as individuals try to adjust to or deal with stressors ○ Stressors: the environmental circumstances that disrupt, or threaten to disrupt, individuals daily functioning ○ Stress is the response a person feels to stressors ○ Stress can refer to:  environmental events □ Types of environmental stressors:  Harm: damage causing events  Threats: Potentially damaging in future  Challenges: Events that pose obstacles (not damaging) □ Duration differences:  Acute stressor: last briefly  Chronic stressor: prolonged  Subjective feelings: potentially stressful event from the perspective of the individual

experiencing it  Body's response to stressful events (physiological stress reactions): □ Stress response of "fight or flight" □ General adaptation syndrome:  Alarm reaction  Resistance  Exhaustion □ Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis  Cortisol is released into the bloodstream which increases heart rate and blood sugar and energizes stress reaction ○ Gender differences in coping with stress:  Tend and befriend: a coping strategy often used by women in which the response to a threat involves helping other, or tending, and maintaining a close support network, or befriending. • Mood: A prolonged, consistent feeling state, either positive or negative ○ Feeling state; refers to the feelings that are ever -present part of conscious experience ○ Mood dimensions: Universal variations in feeling states; variations that can describe the mood of any and all people ○ Structure of mood: the complete set of dimensions needed to describe variations in mood experiences  Arousal: the state of energy the body is in  Valence: overall positive/negative nature of the mood...