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Chapter 1 and 2 reviews/ exam 1 and 2 review...

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019

Chapter 7 HUMAN MEMORY Encoding: Getting information into memory The Role of Attention • attention involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. • Models of Selective Attention • Early-selection models propose that input is filtered before meaning is processed. • Late selection models- filtering occurs after the processing of meaning. • The cocktail party phenomenon • suggests that attention involves late selection, based on meaning of input • Cell phones and distracted driving • Level of Processing • Craik and Lockhart • processing information can be at different levels • three progressively deeper levels os processing are: • Structural Encoding- shallow processing focuses ont he physical structure of the stimulus • (ex. capital letters, lowercase letters, that are seen when a word is flashed) • Phonemic Encoding- emphasis is on how a word sounds. involves naming or saying the word (maybe in your head) • Semantic Encoding- focuses on the meaning of verbal inputs, you think about the object and the action of the word • Level of processing theory- basically says that the deeper the level of processing the longerlasting memory codes

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019

Enriching Encoding enrichment is a way to facilitate memory • Elaboration, Visual, Imagery, and self-referent coding can all improve memory • Elaboration • Semantic encoding can be enhanced through elaboration • elaboration links a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding • ex. saying classical conditioning are what cause phobias, so you apply it to your own fear of spiders thats called elaboration • Visual Imagery • when you visualize images to represent a word , can be used to enrich coding • high- high imagery pairing is stronger then low-low • according to Paivio- imagery facilities memory because it provides a second kind of memory code.

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019 • Paivio dual-coding theory- memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall • you have two chances of getting info • Self-Referent Encoding • making material personally relate to you so you, like you make that connection • involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant. • enhances recall by promoting additional elaboration and better organization Storage: Maintaining information in Memory • wax tablet done my Aristotle and Plato suggests that if the image remained in the wax, the memory would remain intact. like memory • Information processing theories • subdivide memory into three separate memory stores • Atkinson and Shiffrin model says incoming information passes through two temporary storage buffers- the sensory store and short term store before it is transferred into long-term store. They say memory is made up of 3 information stores • Sensory Memory- holds a large amount of information for a fraction of a second • preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second • allows sensation of a visual pattern, sound, or touch to linger for a brief moment after the sensory stimulation is over • in case of vision ppl perceive an afterimage rather than the actual stimulus • Memory trace in the visual sensory lasts for 1/4 second • Memory trace in the visual sensory store decays in about 1/4 of a second • Short term memory -has limited capacity, and is aided by rehearsal. and the storage duration is brief • Limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to 20 seconds

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019 • you can maintain information in your short-term memory by rehersal which just means that by repetitive verbalization or thinking about that information • There are two types of Rehearsal • Maintenance rehearsal and Elaborative • Maintenance rehearsal- is when you are maintaining the information in consciousness, • Elaborative processing, you are increasing the probability that you will retain the information in the future • Without rehearsal information in short-term memory is lost less than 20 seconds • Capacity of storage- George miller said ppl can recall only about seven items in tasks that require them to remember unfamiliar material • Past decade researchers say its 4+ or - one • one way that you can make information stick in your STM is by chucking the information. Chunk is a group pf familiar stimuli stored as a single unit • Baddeley suggested that STM involves more than a simple rehearsal buffer. its more complex and he said its the working-memory • The Working- Memory- is a limited capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and stores information by providing an interface between perception, memory and action • the working memory has four components A. Phonological loop- is at work when you use recitation the remember a phone number temporarily B. Visuospatial sketchpad- permits ppl to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images . like mentally rearrange furniture C. Central executive system- it controls the deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention and dividing attention as needed. ex. dividing your attention between different txt convos D. Episodic buffer- a temporary limited-capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate 4

Tuesday, February 12, 2019 information and that serves as an interface between working memory and long term memory . also serves as the interface between working memory and long-term memory.

How ppl juggle information in their working memory is through WMC (Working Memory Capacity) which refers to ones ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention. Working memory can be influenecd by situation factors like stress or anxiety ppl who have better working memories are flexible and effective in their allocation of working memory

• Long-term memory-can store an apparently unlimited amount of information for indeterminate periods.

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019 • Information store in long-term memory may last weeks, months, or years • unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time • some say forgetting occurs because ppl cant retrieve needed information from LTM • The three Memory stores are not viewed as anatomical structures in the brain but rather as functionally distinct types of memory. • Capacity of storage- George miller said ppl can recall only about seven items in tasks that require them to remember unfamiliar material • ESB (Electrical stimulation of the brain was used for long-lost memory , Wilder Penfiel fro McGill used ESB to map brain functions in patients undergoing surgery for epilepsy, he found that stimulation of the temporal lobe sometimes elicited vivid descriptions of events long past. • Flash light memories- vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events • This doest provide evidence that LTM are permanent • they become less detailed and complete with time.

How is knowledge represented and organized in Memory.

Feature

Sensory memory Short-term

Main encoding format

Copy of input

Storage capacity

Limited

Storage duration

About 1⁄4 second

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Long-term

memory

memory

Largely phonemic Small (7 ± 2 chunks) Up to ±20 seconds

Largely semantic No known limit Minutes to years

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Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies • Bousfield experiment was a list of words that describe one think like summer, mens names etc. • He showed that ppl cluster meaning they remember similar or related items in a group • Conceptual hierarchy- multilevel lassification system based on common properties among items

• Conceptual Hierarcies and Long-term memories • informations can be organized into multilevel hierarchy of concepts • Schema- means that there is a cluster of knowledge about a particular object or even abstracted from previous experience with the object or event. ex. recalling your professors office. so you basically remember things that are consistent with the scheme • Semantic Network- nodes that represent concepts, they’re joined together by pathways that link related concepts • much of the organization of long-term memory depends on networks of association among concepts • The shorter the line the stronger the association

• when you think of words your thoughts naturally go to a mother word so when you think about school you think grades this process is called Spreading activation 7

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• Connectionist Network and Parallel distributed processing (PDP) Model • Human brain depends on parallel distributed parallel distributed processing, which is simultaneous processing of the same information that is spread across networks of neurons • so based on this Connectionist & Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models- assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks • PDP has larger networks of interconnected computing units, and nodes that operate muck like neurons. • In connectionist network, is kinda like semantic networks but the main difference is that specific nodes represent specific concepts or pieces of knowledge • In connectionist a piece of knowledge is represented by a particular pattern of activation across an entire network. that means the information lies in the strength of the connections, which is why PDP approach is called connectionism • the nodes are either inactive or they send excitatory or inhibitory signals other units Retrieval: Getting information out of memory • Answers on an exam may not come to you cause the way you are trying to retrieve them are not effective

• Using Cues to Aid Retrieval • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon- a temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that its just out of reach. • happens once a week , but it occurs more often with age • Memories can be jogged with retrieval cues- so like stimuli that help gain access to memories. • Context cues often facilitate the retrieval of information • ex. you go into the bathroom and want your tweezers but you forget so you come back to your room and than remember

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019 • Hypnosis- increases individuals’ tendency to report incorrect information • Hypnosis attempts to reinstate the context of the event but like you cant cause information is usually retrieved wrong • Reconstructing memories • Bartlett said that all memories are reconstructions of the past that may be distorted and may include details that never happened • Researchers like Loftus say that Misinformation effect has shown that reconstructive distortions show up frequently in eyewitness testimony. The misinformation effect occurs when participants recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post event information. • For example Loftus showed this is an experiment that involved a car crash and asked two different groups what the car was ‘smashed” into and what the car “hit” so a week later they asked the same ppl when they were asked about the ones that said smashed recalled broken glass even tho nothing was broken. This happened because broken glass is consistent with their schemas for cars smashing together. • Source monitoring- the process of making inferences about the origins of memories. • Source-monitoring error- happens when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source. Forgetting: When Memory Lapses • How Quickly We Forget: Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve • Ebbinghaus- studied himself and his memory. through this he found that you can forget stuff fastest right after you learn them • the thing is hi forgetting curve was steep cause he was trying to remember nonsense bullshit. so forgetting curves are as steep as his • Measures of Forgetting • measures of forgetting also measures retention • Retention- is the proportion of material retained, how much of it you remember •

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019 • Three measures of forgetting 1. Recall • recall measure of retention makes you reproduce information without any help. so no cues, like the written part of an exam 2. Recognition • measures of retention requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options , so like multiple choice questions 3. Relearning • measuring retention requires a subject to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before. • Why we forget • when we want to look at why we forget we wanna see the affect of encoding, storage and retrieval processes • Ineffective Encoding • Pseudoforgetting- when you cant forget something you learnt • es. you dont really know what a penny looks like • its due to the lack of attention • subsequent forgetting can be because of ineffective encoding or inappropriate encoding • Phonemic encoding- its inferior to semantic encoding for retention of verbal materials • in conclusion the you cant remember what you read its not cause you’re stupid its maybe cause of ineffective encoding • Decay • Decay theory- proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time. • decay theory attributes forgetting to the impermanence of memory storage • in STM and sensory this can contribute to loos of information when they are getting stored 10

Tuesday, February 12, 2019 • • Interference • Propeses that ppl forget information because of competition from other material • Interference is assumed to be greatest when intervening material is most similar to the test material • Two types of interference 1. Retroactive • occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information • happens between original learning and re-test of that learning during the retention interval • basically when there is a backward effect that makes it harder to recall material you already learnt • Ex.lets say your Hum and Psych are on different days and your studying for your psych exam tomorrow but instead you do your hum thats Retroactive but if you study your psych first that proactive 2. Proactive • occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information • interference is rooted in learning that comes before exposure to the test material

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019 • Retrieval Failure • Encoding Specificity Principle - the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code • Repression- refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

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Ineffective encoding due to lack of attention! Ellen can’t recall the reasons for the Charlottetown Accord because she was daydreaming when it was discussed in her political science class. Retrieval failure due to motivated forgetting! Rufus hates his job at Taco Heaven and is always forgetting when he is scheduled to work. Proactive interference (previous learning of Joe Cocker’s name interferes with new learning)! Ray’s new assistant in the shipping department is named John Cocker. Ray keeps calling him “Joe,” mixing him up with the rock singer Joe Cocker. Retroactive interference (new learning of sociology interferes with older learning of history)! Tania studied history on Sunday morning and sociology on Sunday evening. It’s Monday, and she’s struggling with her history test because she keeps mixing up prominent historians with influential sociologists

Source Monitoring • process of making inferences about the origins of memories • A source monitoring error - happens when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY: How Memory Goes Wrong • Transcience • memory gets weaker over time • memory failure • Absentmindness • memory failure that happens because we dont pay attention because you got other things occupying you • Blocking • temporary problem that happens when we cant retrieve an item like someone name • kind of like the tip of the tongue • Misattribution

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019 • memory problems that some type of memory is present but the memory is either incorrect or unwanted • assigning the memory to the wrong source • Suggestibility • our memory is distorted because of misleading questions (misinformation effect) • bias • inaccuracy due to the effect of our current knowledge on our construction of the past • Persistence • Unwanted memories or recollections that you cannot forget • memories that haunt you • in the extremes it can lead to depression and post-traumatic stress disorder

The Neural Circuitry of Memory • Memory formation results in alterations in synaptic transmission • This means that specific memories depend on biochemical changes that occur at specific synapses. • The Hippocampus and memory • play a role in memory • responsible for initial consolidation of memories • Long term potentiation (LTP) - long lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway • Retrograde Amnesia • involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia • memory events that occurred prior ro the onset of amnesia is lost • Anterograde amnesia • involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia • memory for events that occur subsequent to the onset of amnesia suffers

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019

Systems and Types of Memory • Implicit memory - apparent when retention is exhibited on a a task that does not require intentional remembering • perceptual and motor skills in implicit memory • not restricted to perceptual or procedural memories • • Explicit memory- involves intetional recollection of previous experiences • facts and events • Implicitt and Explicit are different in the knowledge they store • primary sites where storage happens are different • Reflex pathways; the cerebellum for implicit memory and the hippocampus and temporal lobe for explicit memory • There are differences in the recall strategies used in accessing or using the information • The are conscious and deliberate for explicit memory and unconscious and unintentional for implicit • Declarative memory- factual information • like keeping score in tennis is declarative memory and how to play is procedural or non declarative • Nondeclarative memory (procedural memory) - system houses memory for actions, skills, operations and conditioned responses • ex. riding a bike • Episodic memory - made up of chronological or temporally dated recollections of personal experiences , thing you’ve seen heard and done , personal context • Semantic memory - contains general knowledge that is not tie to the time when the information was learned ex. christmas is december 25th • Retrospective memory- involves remembering to perform actions in the future, like walking ted • Prospective memory - involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information, like where you got ted, or what year the riot happened • KEY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RETROSPECTIVE AND PROSPECTIVE

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Tuesday, February 12, 2019 • in the latter no one prompt the individual to remember the intended action. Thus, one needs to remember to remember

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declarative memory! Memory for factual information.

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long-term memory! An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.

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sensory memory! The preservation of information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second.

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implicit memory! Type of memory apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering.

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episodic memory! C...