Gen Psych Chapter 2 - Lecture notes 2 PDF

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Developmental+Psychology+! ! This!chapter!will!take!a!brief!look!at!developmental!psychology.!!In!the!simplest!terms!developmental+ psychologist!are!looking!at!all!the!changes!humans!go!through!from!conception!(when!sperm!penetrate the!egg)!until!death.!!!There!are!three!basic!sub!categories!in!this!field!of!study:!physical,!social!and! cognitive.!! !

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! Physical:!!Investigates!all!the!physical!changes!from!conception!to!death.!! Social:!!Investigates!all!the!changes!in!social!relationships!from!birth!until!death.!For!example,!ho the!relationships!between!parent!and!child!change!across!time.!Or!how!friendships!change!from when!a!child!is!in!elementary!school!as!compared!to!what!constitutes!a!friendship!in!college.!! Cognitive:!Investigates!changes!in!brain!development!from!conception!to!death.!!

! !Prenatal++ + !!!!!A!zygote!is!a!fertilized!egg!(an!egg!is!fertilized!once!a!sperm!cell!enters!the!egg!and!the!DNA!from! the!sperm!and!the!egg!fuse!together).!Conception!takes!place!in!the!fallopian!tubes,!after!which!the! zygote!takes!about!4!days!to!reach!the!uterus.!The!mass!of!now!multiplying!cells!takes!up!to!four!more! days!to!implant!itself!on!the!uterine!wall.!! !

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Fewer!than!half!of!all!zygotes!survive!beyond!the!first!two!weeks!(Hall,!2004).!After!about!a!week!there! are!100!identical!cells!which!now!begin!to!differentiate,!or!specialize.!This!specialization!is!how!some! cells!become!part!of!the!brain!while!others!become!part!of!the!kidneys.!!How!this!process!takes!place,! the!how!and!why!one!cell!specializes!in!a!particular!area!rather!than!another!is!something!science!is! just!now!starting!to!understand.!The!period!from!conception!to!implantation!is!called!the!germinal+ stage.!!

! ! !!!From!implantation!to!8!weeks!is!the!embryonic+stage+(the!above!picture!is!at!about!7!weeks).!This!is! when!the!major!body!organ!systems!begin!to!develop.!The!heart,!the!nervous!system!all!begin!to! function.!At!about!the!seventh!week!biological!sex!begins!to!develop!based!on!the!genetic!code!(XX!for! female,!XY!for!male),!although!gender!is!far!more!complex!than!just!two!simple!categories!and!is!based! on!far!more!than!just!external!body!parts.!!! ! In!simplistic!terms:!if!the!genes!are!XX!nothing!occurs!as!all!humans!are!programmed!to!turn!into!a! female.!!If!XY,!the!female!development!must!be!stopped!and!male!organs!(and!alterations!within!the! brain)!must!occur.!!This!transformation!does!not!always!fit!the!finite!definitions!some!like!to!place!on! sex!or!gender.!If!you!think!about!it,!sex!is!based!on!the!release!of!hormones,!and!for!no!two!people!is! this!release!exactly!the!same!throughout!a!lifetime,!nor!are!the!societal!rewards!and!punishments!(for! following!specific!gender!roles)!always!equal.!!Thus!one!could!argue!there!as!many!sexes!as!there!are! humans.!!!Or!we!could!keep!things!simple!(but!not!completely!accurate)!and!state!we!have!two! genders,!female!and!male.!!

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The!fetal+stage+lasts!from!the!beginning!of!the!third!month!until!birth.!By!the!end!of!the!third!month!the major!organ!systems!have!formed!along!with!the!fingers!and!toes.!By!the!end!of!the!sixth!month!the!fet is!active!so!that!the!mother!can!feel!actual!kicks.!Sleep!patterns!also!occur!at!this!time.!! ! ! !

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Childhood+! • Physical!development:!!!!Motor!skills!begin!to!develop.!The!infant!learns!how!to!control! his/her!own!body.!The!development!as!far!as!acquisition!of!skills!is!dramatic.!!If!you!think! about!it!we!go!from!having!no!idea!what!parts!we!have!let!alone!how!to!use!any!of!them,!to! being!able!to!roll!over!and!sit!up,!crawl,!stand!up,!attempt!walking…!all!within!the!first!52! weeks!of!life.!!! o It!is!believed!that!genes!drive!motor!development!as!identical!twins!(who!share!the! exact!same!DNA)!usually!begin!walking!on!about!the!same!day!(Wilson,!1979).!! Maturation!of!the!brain!(such!as!the!cerebellum)!and!neurons!(mainly!growth!of!the! myelin!sheath)!allows!for!one!to!learn!to!walk!or!to!be!potty!trained.!!Until!the! proper!areas!of!the!brain!are!developed!and!the!neurons!are!coated!with!their! insulation!(the!myelin!sheath)!these!along!with!many!another!physical!abilities!are! not!possible.!!No!matter!how!much!pressure!adults!place!upon!the!infant.! !

! !! • Cognitive!development:!!!When!one!talks!about!early!cognitive!development!it!is!hard!to! ignore!the!work!of!Jean!Piaget!(pronounced!pee-ah-ZHAY).!!A!little!history!on!Jean:! (1896!–!1980),!he!became!interested!in!all!of!this!around!1920,!in!Paris,!as!he!was! working!on!intelligence!tests!for!children.!What!interested!him!the!most!was!not!so! much!when!kids!got!the!answers!right,!but!his!focus!was!on!when!they!messed+up.!!! ! He!noticed!that!kids!seemed!to!make!the!same!mistakes!around!the!same!age,!and!then! as!they!got!older,!the!kids!stopped!making!the!same!mistakes,!at!about!the!same!time.!! ! Piaget!theorized!that!the!reason!for!the!errors!occurring!about!the!same!time!was!due! to!changes!in!the!brain!(or!cognitive!changes).!!Something!we!all!accept!now,!was!not! accepted!until!Piaget!did!his!work;!that!children!do!not!see!the!world!similar!to!how! adults!do.!!Eventually!they!do,!but!this!takes!cognitive!maturation.!! ! Piaget!believed!that!children,!like!adults,!are!constantly!trying!to!make!sense!of!the! world!they!live!in.!!How!does!Piaget!believe!children!accomplish!this!daunting!task?!!! !

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First!off,!he!theorizes!children!create!schemas!(sorta!like!files!on!your!computer)!to!help! organize!information!about!the!world.!Someone!else!teaches!a!child!that!a!cat!is!an! animal.!!The!child!might!start!asking!a!million!questions!about!what!an!animal!is.!!All!the! information!given!is!used!for!the!schema!(or!file)!animal!the!child!creates!in!her/his! brain.!!! • Then!the!child!will!explore!cats!and!store!information!learned!under!the!cat!schema,!but! also!learning!that!a!cat!belongs!under!the!larger!schema,!animal.!!With!time!the!child! will!realize!how!complex!life!is!in!that!there!are!not!just!animals,!there!are!mammals,! reptiles,!birds,!insects,!the!list!goes!on,!or!I!should!say!the!schemas!go!on.!!And!they!do,! as!an!adult!who!is!actively!pursing!knowledge!and!interacting!in!your!world,!you!are!still! creating!new!schemas.!!!There!are!two!concepts,!assimilation!and!accommodation!that! relate!to!this!process!of!schema!building.!! • Assimilation:!this!is!where!we!put!new!information!into!a!schema!we!have!already! created.!!This!is!the!easiest!way!to!fit!new!info!into!our!brain.!!We!try!to!fit!the!new!stuff! into!ideas!or!schemas!we!have!already!formed,!even!if!we!are!wrong.!!For!example,!let’s! go!back!to!our!child!learning!all!about!cats.!!One!bit!of!info!might!be!that!cats!have!fur! and!can!be!a!family!pet.!!The!next!day!a!friend!visits!our!example!child!and!they!bring! their!dog.!!Their!furry!dog!who!happens!to!be!their!pet.!!The!child!will!try!to!assimilate! this!new!phenomenon!(as!the!child!has!never!been!around!a!dog!ever!before).!! + The!child!calls!the!“dog”!a!cat!because!of!this!forced!assimilation.!!Even!as!adults!we! often!try!to!store!new!info!into!old!categories!we!have!created!and!are!comfortable! with.!!Luckily!the!child!is!told,!“no!this!is!not!a!cat!this!is!a!dog.”!!More!questions,!but! with!the!answers!the!child!is!able!to!create!a!new!schema!(accommodate)!called!dogs! and!in!doing!so!also!alter!the!overly!broad!schema!they!were!using!for!cats.!! ! If!your!brain!stuck!to!the!first!information!it!received!about!any!technology,!within!two! years,!assimilation!would!just!not!work.!As!technology!changes!our!brain!is!forced!to! accommodate!these!new!devices!and!ways!to!use!them,!and!alter!our!outdated! schemas!of!how!a!cell!phone,!or!tablet,!or!laptop!is!supposed!to!work.!! •

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! Piaget’s!stage!theory:!!Yep,!he!has!a!stage!theory!which!not!only!helps!explain!how!a! human!brain!changes!from!infancy!into!later!childhood,!but!also!makes!for!nice!exam! questions.!! !

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Sensorimotor!Stage:!!(birth!to!about!two)!!An!infant!is!only!able!to!assimilate!the! new!stuff!encountered!in!the!world!to!a!repertoire!of!reflexes,!such!as!the! sucking!reflex.!!Thus!they!try!to!place!new!objects!into!their!mouths.!From!day! one!sucking!provided!nourishment!and!this!is!how!the!world!was!experienced,! thus!the!infant!sees!no!reason!to!change!their!perception.!!Until!they!are!yelled! at!by!caretakers!for!putting!everything!they!can!into!their!mouths.!! !

! ! Infants!move!from!mainly!reflexive+movements!to!more!purposeful!behavior! such!as!watching!with!amazement!as!they!open!and!close!their!hand!to!make!a! fist.!The!child!is!beginning!to!realize!the!power!she/he!has!over!her/his!hands!as! well!as!the!rest!of!the!body!and!eventually!objects!outside!the!body.!!! ! Another!large!cognitive!advancement!is!the!understanding!that!objects+exist+ even+when+they+are+not+in+viewing+range+of+the+infant.!!There!is!a!time!when!an! infant!seems!to!believe!the!object!vanishes!from!existence!if!it!cannot!be!seen.! And!is!astonished!when!the!object!is!brought!back!into!view.!This!is!one!reason! why!infants!can!be!entertained!for!what!seems!like!hours!by!a!simple!game!of! peek-a-boo.!!Piaget!believed!object+permanence,!the!understanding!that!even! though!I!cannot!see!my!dog!anymore,!I!know!she!still!exists,!took!longer!to! develop!than!scientist!believe!today.!!!! !

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! ! Preoperational!Stage:!(2!–!7!years!of!age)!Now!the!child!can!use!symbols!to!stand! for!objects!(which!is!what!language!is).!With!this!new!cognitive!ability,!children! can!now!engage!in!pretend+play.!Piaget!believed!that!children!in!this!stage!still! suffer!from!the!limitations!of!egocentrism.!This!is!when!children!can!only!see!the! world!from!the!one!dimension!of!their!own!perspective.!! ! For!example,!a!child!will!find!it!difficult!to!understand!the!frustration!another! person!is!feeling!when!the!child!is!not!frustrated.!!Or!the!child!may!comprehend! that!he/she!has!a!brother!but!when!you!ask!if!their!brother!has!a!sibling!they!say,! “no”.!!This!occurs!because!they!can!only!see!this!question!from!their!perspective! rather!than!from!the!point!of!view!of!their!brother/sister.!!! ! Here!again,!Piaget!seemed!to!underestimate!the!cognitive!ability!of!children.!! Many!appear!to!comprehend,!although!not!to!the!level!adults!are!capable!of,!the! pain!of!others!even!when!the!child!is!not!experiencing!the!same!anxiety.!! Children!in!this!stage!also!lack!the!ability!to!conserve,!which!is!fully!developed!in! the!next!stage.!!

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! Concrete!Operations:!(7!–!11!years!old)!They!begin!to!grasp!some!of!the! complexities!of!the!physical!world.!Such!as!change!in!form!does!not!mean! change!in!quantity.!In!his!classic!experiment!Piaget!would!show!preoperational! children!two!glasses!of!milk.!!The!milk!was!at!the!exact!same!level.!He!would! then!pour!the!glasses!into!two!different!containers,!one!long!and!thin!the!other! shorter!and!larger!around.!!While!pouring!not!a!single!drop!of!milk!was!spilled.! The!children!were!asked;!which+glass+has+more+milk?!(This!has!been!criticized!as! leading!the!witness,!and!when!children!are!asked!a!more!neutral!question!such! as,!does!one!glass!contain!more!milk!or!are!they!equal!the!ability!to!answer! correctly!does!increase!even!with!preoperational!children).!!Preoperational! children,!for!the!most!part,!state!the!long!thin!glass!has!more!milk.!It!has!been! hypothesized!that!the!kids!do!this!because!they!can!only!focus!on!one!aspect!of! the!problem,!height!of!the!mild!in!each!glass.!With!concrete!operations!the!child! can!reverse!the!pouring!in!their!head!and!easily!answer,!“they!both!have!the! same!amount!of!milk,!duh.”!!!This!ability!allows!them!to!better!comprehend! analogies!as!well!as!math.!!See!the!image!on!page!8.!! ! Formal!Operations!(suitable!for!children!12!and!up)!We!are!no!longer!stuck!just! in!the!physical!present!world.!That!ever-expanding!world!of,!what!if’s,!the! abstract!of!thought!now!opens!up.!What!if!I!became!a!doctor!when!I!got!older,! what!would!I!do!if!my!best!friend!stole!from!a!store?!!

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! ! Social!Development:!!Lev!Vygotsky!(1896!–!1934)!also!studied!children!but!he! worked!out!of!Russia.!Where!Piaget!focused!purely!on!cognitive!development!as! a!child!interacts!in!her/his!world,!Vygotsky!could!not!see!this!development!as! independent!from!the!social!experience!of!culture.!Language!was!vital!in!how!Lev! viewed!cognitive!development!as!coming!about!from!mentoring!from!adults! within!the!child’s!culture!with!lessons!explained!via!language.!Vygotsky!believed! that!most!of!this!learning!took!place!in!the!home.!!!Skills!learned!here!are!used! for!cognitive!development.!!!

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! Zone!of!proximal!development!(ZPD)!is!Vygotsky’s!term!describing!how!a!child! carries+out+tasks+with+the+help+someone+who+is+more+skilled!(usually!an!adult!who! represents!the!culture!the!child!is!being!raised!in).!If!you!are!a!first!generation! college!student!(as!I!was)!you!can!relate!to!how!helpful!it!would!have!been!had!a! sibling!or!parent!who!attended!college!before!you!did!could!help!you!out!with! advice.!The!mistakes!they!could!have!helped!you!avoid!mistakes,!although! Vygotsky!is!thinking!in!terms!of!younger!children!learning!from!adults!rather! then!you!learning!from!adults!as!you!try!to!figure!out!how!to!survive!college.!! !

! ! ! + + Attachment!is!the!connection!between!an!infant!and!caregiver!and!may!be!one! of!the!most!important!social!developmental!milestones.!Beyond!learning!that! you!can!trust!others!(through!repeated!actions!such!as!feeding!when!an!infant!is! hungry!or!entertaining!a!bored!infant!–!with!these!and!similar!behaviors!one! learns!you!can!trust!others!when!you!are!in!need).!It!has!been!theorized!by!some! that!if!trust!is!not!developed!by!age!two,!when!older!this!person!may!not!be!able! to!trust!other!in!friendships,!relationships!and!even!family!interactions.!! ! ! ! ! !

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Mary!Ainsworth!(1913-1999)!conducted!extensive!research!on!different!types!of! attachment!between!infant!and!caregiver!called!the!strange!situation.!!From!her! research!she!theorized!three!types!of!attachment!(secure,!avoidant,! ambivalent/resistant).!!!

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! ! The!secure+child!as!an!adult!is!able!to!show!trust!to!those!he/she!loves.!Space! can!be!given!to!the!partner!in!that!they!are!allowed!to!do!things!on!their!own! and!with!others!even!when!secure!adult!is!not!present.!! Resistant+or+insecure!children!as!adults!need!constant!reassurance!that!they!are! still!loved!and!are!constantly!looking!for!signs!of!trouble.!!They!freak!when!their! partner!does!not!respond!to!a!text!within!five!minutes!and!begin!to!imagine!that! the!person!they!love!has!found!another.!! Avoidant+children,!in!adult!relationships!are!not!comfortable!getting!close!to! others.!They!either!seek!distance!or!superficial!connections.!This!is!to!avoid!the! pain!of!getting!hurt,!which!they!fear!will!take!place!if!they!allow!anyone!to!get! too!close.!! !

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! ! ! Parenting+styles:!!!! !!!!!!!Diane!Baumrind!(1927!-!)!!has!done!a!great!deal!of!work!studying!the!different!strategies! parents!use!when!raising!their!children.!In!creating!her!parenting+styles!Ms.!Baumrind!focused!on! four!areas:!restrictiveness,!demands!placed!on!the!child!to!be!successful!(intellectually,! emotionally,!and!socially),!communication!ability!and!warmth.!! !

! ! Authoritative!–!These!can!be!described!as!the!perfect!parents!as!they!balance!discipline!with! affection!and!raise!children!who!become!the!most!successful.!Though!as!parents!they!are!strict! with!the!rules!they!establish!for!their!children;!they!have!no!issue!explaining!the+reasons!behind! each!rule.!The!communication!with!their!children!shows!love+and+support.!They!demand!mature! behavior!but!are!available!to!assist.!! !

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! Authoritarian!–!These!parents!have!strict!guidelines!as!to!what!is!allowed!and!not!allowed,!which!is! similar!to!the!authoritative!parent.!!But!here!is!where!they!differ,!the!authoritarian!parent!is!far!less+ willing+to+discuss+reasons!for!the!rules!outside!of,!“because+I+said+so.”!!!They!have!poor! communication!with!their!children!and!use!force.!!They!look!at!discussion!as!talking!back,!and! reason!for!further!punishment.!!Children!raised!in!this!environment!are!often!withdrawn!or! aggressive!and!usually!struggle!in!school.!! ! Permissive!–!These!parents!are!the!“cool”!parents.!They!are!chill,!and!supportive!but!do!not! communicate!well!and!rarely+establish+rules,!thus!kids!basically!do!what!they!want.!!As!adults!these! children!tend!to!lack!maturity!and!can!be!impulsive!(at!times!this!can!lead!to!aggressive!behavior)! and!moody.!! ! What!about!parents!who!are!abusive!or!neglectful?!Most!children!raised!in!adverse!environments! overcome!the!difficulties!and!have!“normal”!adulthoods!(Masten,!2001)!as!do!most!victims!of!child! abuse!(Clancy,!2010).!!This!is!not!to!say!the!outcomes!are!always!positive.!Most!abusive!parents,! and!many!people!found!guilty!of!murder,!were!abused!as!a!child!(Kempe!&!Kempe,!1978).!!It!is! estimated!that!about!30%!of!those!who!were!abused!will!later!abuse!their!own!children.!! ! !

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Adolescence+ +

! Adolescence!can!be!so!confusing!that!even!defining!it!is!met!with!controversy.!!When!does!it! actually!begin?!And!more!importantly!(as!far!as!those!arguing!about!the!issue),!when!does!it!end! and!thus!young!adulthood!begin?!!Most!scientists!agree!that!adolescence!starts!when!puberty! begins!(which!can!occur!at!varying!ages!across!people).!!To!keep!it!simple,!this!period!in!life!ends! once!one!accepts!adult!responsibility.!!So!if!a!22-year-old!college!student!lives!with!his!or!her! parents,!working!10!hours!a!week!to!pay!a!few!bills,!is!this!22-year-old!an!adult?!!Can!one!live!away! from!home,!but!have!all!needs!paid!for!by!parents!and!still!be!considered!an!adult?!!There!is!no! clear-cut!answer!and!I!suspect!you!may!have!strong!opinions!about!the!issue.!! !

! ! One!interesting!questions!surrounding!puberty!is:!what!happens!when!a!person!enters!puberty! earlier!than!most!people!his/her!age;!and!what!is!interesting!is!how!this!phenomenon!impacts!each! gender!differently.!For!males!this!early!entry!into!adolescence!is!usually!a!positive!experience.!! Because!he!now!has!more!muscular!development!and!may!be!taller!than!his!peers,!the!attention! gained,!for!the!most!part,!is!positive.!Researchers!have!found!these!males!are!stronger,!more!selfassured,!more!popular,!more!independent,!but!also!more!likely!to!use!drugs!and!alcohol!and! engage!in!more!delinquent!behavior!(Copland!et!al.,!2010).!!!

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For!females!this!early!transition!can!be!more!challenging.!!At!first!she!may!enjoy!the!additional! attention!occurring!because!of!her!external!physical!changes,!but!this!attention!can!quickly!turn! into!issue!of!sexual!harassment,!and!unwanted!pressure!for!sexual!activity!(Ge!&!Natsuaki,!2009).!! Because!most!families!avoid!talking!opening!about!sex!and!the!best!way!to!deal!with!these! advances,!many!females!find!themselves!in!situations!they!are!not!prepared!to!deal!with;!and! which!the!media!paints!as!far!more!tantalizing!than!is!usually!the!case!in!reality.!! ! The!adolescent!brain:! !!!!! The!brain!is!here!to!help!us!survive!and!one!way!of!doing!so!is!to!practice!efficiency.!!During! childhood!the!brain’s!plasticity!(ability!to!develop!physically!based!on!a!changing!environment)!is!in! play!as!the!brain!determines!what!basic!environment!its!owner!is!going!to!have!to!deal!with!in!the! future.!!By!adolescence!this!ability!to!change!decreases!and!a!process!termed!“pruning”!begins.!!! ! With!pruning!the!brain!trashes!unused!neurons!and!connections.!Its!somewhat!lik...