Guidelines for managing risks in recreational water PDF

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Guidelines for Managing Risks in Recreational Water

WO RK IN G

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B U IL D

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H E A L T H Y

A U ST R A L IA

GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING RISKS IN RECREATIONAL WATER

© Australian Government 2008 Paper-based publications This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Commonwealth available from the Attorney-General's Department. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the Commonwealth Copyright Administration, Attorney General's Department, Robert Garran Offices, National Circuit, Canberra, ACT, 2600 or posted at: http://www.ag.gov.au/cca ISBN Print:

1864962666

© Australian Government 2008 Electronic documents This work is copyright. You may download, display, print and reproduce this material in unaltered form only (retaining this notice) for your personal, non-commercial use or use within your organisation. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. Requests for further authorisation should be directed to the Commonwealth Copyright Administration, Attorney General's Department, Robert Garran Offices, National Circuit, Canberra, ACT, 2600 or posted at: http://www.ag.gov.au/cca ISBN Online:

1864962720

URL addresses are correct at the time of publication. The NHMRC acknowledges that, at times, organisations change URL addresses, or remove information from the internet. Documents of the NHMRC are prepared by panels of experts drawn from appropriate Australian academic, professional, community and government organisations. The NHMRC is grateful to these people for the excellent work they do on its behalf. This work is usually performed on an honorary basis and in addition to their usual work commitments. The Guidelines for Managing Risks in Recreational Water are scheduled for review in 2010. Published February 2008

To obtain details regarding NHMRC publications contact: Email: [email protected] Phone: Toll Free 1300 000 NMHRC - 1300 000 64672 Internet: http://www.nhmrc.gov.au

GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING RISKS IN RECREATIONAL WATER

CONTENTS ExECUTIvE SUMMARy Physical hazards Sun, heat and cold Microbial quality of recreational water Cyanobacteria and algae in fresh water Cyanobacteria and algae in coastal and estuarine water Dangerous aquatic organisms Chemical hazards Aesthetic aspects

1 5 6 6 7 8 8 9 10

PART 1 ThE GUIDELINES

11

1 INTRODUCTION

11

1.1

Overview 1.1.1 Need for recreational water use guidelines 1.1.2 Aim of these guidelines 1.2 Preventive risk management approach 1.3 Scope and application of guidelines 1.4 Uses and users of recreational water 1.4.1 Definitions 1.4.2 Susceptible groups 1.5 Designation of recreation activities 1.6 Hazards, hazardous events and potential outcomes 1.7 Risk assessment 1.8 Measures to reduce risks in water recreation 1.9 Guidelines and guideline values 1.10 Summary guidelines for recreational water

2 MONITORING 2.1

2.2 2.3

2.4 2.5

Design of monitoring programs 2.1.1 Objectives 2.1.2 Scope 2.1.3 Quality assurance program 2.1.4 Logistical requirements 2.1.5 Hierarchy of authority, responsibility and actions 2.1.6 Training 2.1.7 Evaluation Data collection Data handling 2.3.1 Pre-analysis requirements 2.3.2 Discrepancies 2.3.3 Data storage Data interpretation Data reporting

11 11 11 12 14 15 15 15 16 16 18 19 22 23

27 27 28 28 29 29 29 30 30 30 30 30 31 31 31 31

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GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING RISKS IN RECREATIONAL WATER

2.6

2.7

Aspects relevant to specific hazards 2.6.1 Drowning and injury hazards 2.6.2 Microbial water quality assessment and sanitary inspection 2.6.3 Cyanobacteria and algae 2.6.4 Other biological and chemical hazards 2.6.5 Aesthetic aspects Progressive implementation of monitoring

32 32 32 34 34 35 35

PART 2 SUPPORTING INFORMATION

37

3 PhySICAL hAzARDS

37

3.1 3.2

3.3

3.4

Overview Assessment of risks associated with physical hazards 3.2.1 Water depth 3.2.2 Variable beach and surf zone topography 3.2.3 Breaking waves 3.2.4 Rips and currents 3.2.5 Localised hazards Management of risks associated with physical hazards 3.3.1 Beach rating 3.3.2 Education 3.3.3 Warning signs 3.3.4 Lifesaving 3.3.5 Zoning Monitoring of risks associated with physical hazards

4 SUN, hEAT AND COLD 4.1 4.2

4.3

Overview Assessment of risks associated with exposure to sun, heat and cold 4.2.1 Risks associated with sun 4.2.2 Risks associated with heat and cold Management of exposure to sun, heat and cold 4.3.1 Management of risks from the sun 4.3.2 Cold 4.3.3 Heat

5 MICRObIAL qUALITy OF RECREATIONAL WATER 5.1 5.2

5.3

iv

Overview Health effects associated with faecal pollution 5.2.1 Range of pathogens 5.2.2 Health effects and numbers of pathogens Approaches to risk assessment and risk management 5.3.1 Risk assessment 5.3.2 Risk management 5.3.3 Microbial assessment categories for marine waters 5.3.4 Microbial assessment categories for fresh and estuarine waters 5.3.5 Regulatory microorganisms of importance in recreational water

37 37 38 39 39 39 40 40 42 44 45 46 46 47

49 49 49 49 50 52 52 55 56

57 57 59 59 60 63 63 68 71 73 74

GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING RISKS IN RECREATIONAL WATER

5.4

5.5

5.6

Assessment of faecal contamination of recreational water environments 5.4.1 Sanitary inspection 5.4.2 Microbial water-quality assessment Classification of recreational water environments 5.5.1 Initial classification 5.5.2 Follow-up of initial classification 5.5.3 Provisional classification 5.5.4 Reclassification, including health advisories and upgrading 5.5.5 Monitoring and auditing Management of risks from microbial quality 5.6.1 Public health advisories and warnings 5.6.2 Pollution prevention

6 CyANObACTERIA AND ALGAE IN FRESh WATER 6.1 6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6 6.7

Overview Health effects 6.2.1 Cyclic peptides (microcystins and nodularin) 6.2.2 Alkaloids 6.2.3 Lipopolysaccharides Exposure 6.3.1 Dermal contact 6.3.2 Ingestion or aspiration Guidelines for freshwater bodies 6.4.1 Derivation of guideline 6.4.2 Interpretation and application of the guideline Application of the cyanobacterial guidelines 6.5.1 Grading a water body 6.5.2 Monitored water bodies: surveillance, alert and action modes Sampling Management

7 CyANObACTERIA AND ALGAE IN COASTAL AND ESTUARINE WATER 7.1 7.2 7.3

7.4 7.5

7.6

7.7

Overview Health effects Occurrence, exposure and effects 7.3.1 Organisms causing adverse effects through dermal contact or inhalation 7.3.2 Organisms causing adverse effects through ingestion of water or scum Guidelines for coastal and estuarine waters Application of the algae and cyanobacteria guidelines 7.5.1 Grading a water body 7.5.2 Monitored water bodies: surveillance, alert and action modes Management 7.6.1 Short-term measures 7.6.2 Long-term measures Sampling

76 77 83 85 86 86 87 87 88 89 89 89

91 91 92 93 95 96 97 98 101 101 101 106 108 108 111 115 116

119 119 121 122 122 125 125 127 127 130 131 131 132 132

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GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING RISKS IN RECREATIONAL WATER

8 DANGEROUS AqUATIC ORGANISMS 8.1 8.2

8.3

Overview Assessment of risks associated with dangerous aquatic organisms 8.2.1 Types of injury 8.2.2 Organisms known to pose a risk to health 8.2.3 Nonvenomous organisms 8.2.4 Venomous invertebrates 8.2.5 Venomous vertebrates 8.2.6 Free-living microorganisms Management of risks associated with dangerous aquatic organisms 8.3.1 Nonvenomous organisms 8.3.2 Venemous invertebrates 8.3.3 Venemous vertebrates

9 ChEMICAL hAzARDS 9.1 9.2 9.3

9.4 9.5

Overview Assessment of exposure to chemicals Assessment of chemical hazards in recreational water 9.3.1 Qualitative assessment 9.3.2 Quantitative assessment Management of chemicals Monitoring of chemicals

10 AESThETIC ASPECTS OF RECREATIONAL WATER 10.1 Overview 10.2 Aesthetic parameters 10.2.1 Transparency and colour 10.2.2 Oil, grease and detergents 10.2.3 Litter 10.2.4 Odour 10.2.5 Noise 10.3 Economic consequences 10.4 Guideline values and management 10.5 Monitoring

REFERENCES APPENDIx 1

133 133 133 133 137 138 141 142 143 143 143 145

147 147 147 148 148 149 150 156

159 159 159 159 160 161 162 162 162 163 164

167 WATER bODy ASSESSMENT FOR OCCURRENCE OF FREShWATER CyANObACTERIA

A1.1 Site assessment Table A1.1 Susceptibility category A1.2 History of cyanobacteria A1.3 Temperature A1.4 Nutrients A1.5 Stratification Figure A1.1 Stratification of a typical freshwater body A1.6 Bloom formation

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133

185 185 186 186 186 186 187 187 188

GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING RISKS IN RECREATIONAL WATER

APPENDIx 2

APPENDIx 3

MICRObIAL WATER qUALITy ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT FLOW ChART

189

Risk based Recreational Water Quality Management

189

CALCULATION OF ThE 95Th PERCENTILE Box A3.1

APPENDIx 4

Example calculation of 95th percentile

191 193

ExAMPLE OF SANITARy INSPECTIONS OF RECREATIONAL WATER qUALITy

195

APPENDIx 5

PROCESS REPORT

201

APPENDIx 6

GLOSSARy

205

APPENDIx 7

ACRONyMS

215

TAbLES Table A Summary of the guidelines Table 1.1 Examples of adverse health outcomes associated with hazards encountered in recreational water environments Table 1.2 Hazards and measures for reducing risks in whole-body (primary) contact recreational use Table 1.3 Hazards and measures for reducing risks in incidental (secondary) contact recreational use Table 1.4 Hazards and measures for reducing risks in non contact (aesthetic) recreational activities Table 1.5 Summary of the guidelines for recreational water Table 3.1 Wave types Table 3.2 Description of rip types Table 3.3 Contributing factors and preventive and management actions — drowning Table 3.4 Contributing factors and preventive and management actions — impact injuries Table 3.5 Contributing factors and preventive and management actions — cuts and lesions Table 3.6 Beach type and safety rating Table 3.7 Beach safety rating and generalised hazards, by beach state and wave height Table 3.8 Basic safety messages for recreational water users Table 4.1 Global solar UVR indicator Table 4.2 Health outcomes associated with exposure to water temperatures, wind chill and heat indicator Table 4.3 Measures to reduce exposure to UVR Table 5.1 Monitoring of microbial alert levels for recreational water Table 5.2 Waterborne pathogens and their significance in recreational water Table 5.3 Examples of pathogens and indicator organism concentrations in raw sewage Table 5.4 Risk assessment paradigm for any human health effect Table 5.5 Geometric means of indicator organisms and pathogens in primary sewage effluent in Sydney Table 5.6 Implementation of management approaches for recreational water quality Table 5.7 Basis of derivation of percentile values for determining microbial water-quality assessment categories

4 18 20 21 22 24 39 40 41 42 42 43 44 45 50 52 53 59 59 61 65 67 69 72

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GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING RISKS IN RECREATIONAL WATER

Table 5.8 Survival of Enterovirus in sea water and river water 74 Table 5.9 Suitability of different organisms as regulatory parameters for assessing faecal pollution 75 Table 5.10 Risk potential to human health through exposure to sewage through outfalls (including stormwater run-off) 81 Table 5.11 Risk potential to human health from exposure to sewage through riverine flow and discharge 82 Table 5.12 Risk potential to human health through exposure to sewage from bathers 83 Table 5.13 Classification matrix for faecal pollution of recreational water environments 85 Table 5.14 Recommended monitoring schedule 88 Table 6.1 General features of the cyanotoxins 93 Table 6.2 Interpretation of cyanobacterial alert levels for recreational water 107 Table 6.3 Monitoring program associated with cyanobacterial alert levels 108 Table 6.4 Susceptibility to cyanobacterial contamination category 108 Table 6.5 Suitability for recreation 109 Table 6.6 Recommended actions at different alert levels 112 Table 7.1 Toxic syndromes associated with marine algal toxins affecting humans 121 Table 7.2 Possible health risks at different levels of Karenia brevis 124 Table 7.3 Interpretation of algal and cyanobacterial alert levels for coastal and estuarine recreational water 127 Table 7.4 Susceptibility category 128 Table 7.5 Suitability for recreation 128 Table 7.6 Surveillance, alert and action modes 131 Table 8.1 Dangerous aquatic organisms in Australian waters 134 Table 8.2 Distribution, habitat and factors influencing the risk of contact with nonvenomous organisms 135 Table 8.3 Venomous Invertebrates – Distribution, habitat and factors influencing the risk of envenomation 136 Table 8.4 Venomous Vertebrates – Distribution, habitat and factors influencing the risk of envenomation 136 Table 8.5 Distribution, habitat and factors influencing the risk of infection by Naegleria fowleri (free-living microorganisms) 137 Table 9.1 Routes of exposure to chemicals in recreational water 148 Table 9.2 Sources of information on chemicals usage in local areas 149 Table 9.3 Sources of chemicals in recreational water 151 Table 9.4 Other measures of chemical quality of recreational waters 156

FIGURES Figure A Structure of the guidelines for managing risks in recreational water Figure 1.1 Harmonised approach to assessment of risk and management for microbial hazards suitable for any water-related exposure Figure 1.2 Schematic comparison of health hazards encountered during recreational water use Figure 4.1 Heat indicator at different combinations of temperature and humidity Figure 4.2 Wind chill at different combinations of temperature and wind speed Figure 5.1 Simplified framework for microbial quality assessment of recreational water Figure 6.1 Framework for assessment of cyanobacterial quality of recreational water

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3

13 19 51 51 58 106

GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING RISKS IN RECREATIONAL WATER

Figure 6.2 Decision tree to determine recreational water quality 110 Figure 7.1 Formation of algal blooms or accumulations of cells by physical concentration mechanisms 120 Figure 7.2 Framework for assessment of algal and cyanobacterial quality of coastal and estuarine recreational water 126 Figure 7.3 Decision tree to determine recreational water quality 129

bOxES Box Box Box Box

1.1 5.1 5.2 5.3

Box 5.4 Box 5.5 Box 6.1 Box 6.2 Box 6.3 Box 7.1

Hazards, hazardous events and risks Non-gastrointestinal illness associated with recreational water exposure Screening-level quantitative approach to assessing bather risk Values calculated using different methods for estimating 95th percentile for enterocci (CFU/100ml) Differential die-off of indicator pathogens in sea water and fresh water Faecal indicator bacteria Examples of cases of human illness attributed to cyanotoxins in recreational water Derivation of a guideline for short-term cyanobacterial exposure for recreational activities Processes and decisions required to complete the assessment of suitability Processes and decisions required to complete decision tree to determine recreational water quality

12 62 67

71 74 76 97 104 111 129

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GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING RISKS IN RECREATIONAL WATER

ExECUTIvE SUMMARy The primary aim of these guidelines is to protect the health of humans from threats posed by the recreational use of coastal, estuarine and fresh waters. Threats may include natural hazards such as surf, rip currents and aquatic organisms, and those with an artificial aspect, such as discharges of wastewater. These guidelines should be used to ensure that recreational water environments are managed as safely as possible so that as many people as possible can benefit from using the water. These guidelines are not mandatory; rather, they have been developed as a tool for state and territory governments to develop legislation and standards appropriate for local conditions and circumstances. The aim of the guidelines is to encourage the adoption of a nationally harmonised approach for the management of the quality of coastal, estuarine and fresh waters used for recreation. The guidelines do not directly address environmental aspects of the recreational use of water, but the environmental impacts of such use should be considered, because a healthy environment has many benefits for human health. This document is divided into two parts: overview of the management of recreational water, including a table of the key recommendations included in the guidelines; and information on potential hazards associated with recreational waters. Figure A gives an overview of the structure of the guidelines and the key elements of the supporting chapters. Table A summarises the guidelines, including guideline values and specific comments. The guidelines represent a major revision of the previous National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) guidelines — Australian Guidelines for Recreational Water Use (NHMRC 1990). In particular, these new guidelines include a preventive approach to the management of recreational water that focuses on developing an understanding of all potential influences on a recreational water body, through local assessment and management of hazards and of factors that may lead to hazards. This approach provides information on the local influences on recreational water quality, as well as numerical information on the likely level of contaminants. The results can be used to:

Potential adverse impacts on the health of recreational water users must be weighed against the enormous benefits to health and wellbeing (eg rest, relaxation and exercise) and to local economies that rely on water-associated recreational activities.

1

GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING RISKS IN RECREATIONAL WATER

A key aspect of the preventive approach is the development of monitoring programs that can provide a real-time indication of water quality. To ensure safety in recreational water environments, the responsible management authorities should establish programs for evaluating existing hazards and monitoring the area for any changes that may occur. Such programs should be based on a code of good practice for recreational water monitoring. To protect public health, it will often be necessary to develop programs for monitoring several aspects (beach safety, pollution control etc) in parallel. These guidelines suggest a three-level monitoring system, with each of the major hazard groups being dealt with at each level of monitoring. The suggested levels are: measure contaminants (eg physical, microbial, cyanobacterial and algal). elevated contaminant levels, and increased sampling to enable a more accurate assessment of the risks to recreational users. health authorities to warn the public that the water body is considered unsuitable for recreational use. The guidelines also introduce the concept of grading water bodies according to their suitability for recreational use, based on contamination with microorganisms, c...