Harvard.Study - Physio review PDF

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BIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE 3 HISTOLOGY Define the following terms: epithelial simple epithelia columnar elastic fibers axons chondrocytes leukocytes cardiac muscle dendrites

connective stratified epithelia squamous reticular fibers organs osteocytes erythrocytes visceral muscle fibrous connective tissue

muscle pseudostratified loose connective tissue fibroblasts tendons Haversian systems platelets nervous tissue

nervous cuboidal collagenous fibers adipose tissue ligaments blood skeletal muscle neuron

Define tissue and explain where it falls in the hierarchy of structural organization. From micrographs or diagrams, correctly identify the following animal tissues, explain how their structure relates to function and give examples of each. Epithelial tissue: 1. Cuboidal 2. Columnar 3. Squamous Connective Tissue 1. Adipose 2. Cartilage 3. Bone Muscle 1. Skeletal (striated) 2. Cardiac 3. Visceral (smooth) Nervous. Cartilage is which of the following types of tissues? A. Connective B. Reproductive C. Nervous D. Epithelial E. Adipose Bones are joined together at joints by: A. negative feedback B. Haversian systems C. loose connective tissue D. tendons E. ligaments Which of the following fibers has the greatest tensile strength? A. elastin fibers B. fibrin fibers C. collagenous fibers D. reticular fibers E. spindle fibers Muscles are joined to bones by: A. ligaments B. tendons C. loose connective tissue D. Haversian systems E. positive feedback The fibroblasts secrete: A. fats B. chondrin C. interstitial fluids D. calcium phosphate for bone E. proteins for connective fibers Cardiac muscle is which of the following? A. Striated and branched B. Striated and unbranched C. Smooth and voluntary D. Striated and voluntary E. Smooth and involuntary Which of the following tissues lines kidney ducts? A. Connective B. Smooth muscle C. Nervous D. Epithelial E. Adipose Which of the following apply to skeletal muscle? A. Smooth and involuntary B. Smooth and unbranched C. Striated and voluntary D. Smooth and voluntary E. Striated and branched Stratified columnar is a description that might apply to what type of animal tissue? A. Connective B. Striated muscle C. Nerve D. Epithelial E. Bone The epithelium best adapted for a body surface subject to abrasion is: A. simple squamous B. simple cuboidal C. simple columnar D. stratified columnar E. stratified squamous

Development 1. List the two functions of fertilization. 2. Describe the acrosomal reaction and explain how it ensures the gametes are conspecific. 3. Explain the cortical reaction. 4. Explain how the acrosomal and cortical reactions function sequentially to prevent polyspermy. 5. Describe the changes that occur in an activated egg and explain the importance of cytoplasmic materials to egg activation. 6. Explain the importance of embryo polarity during cleavage. 7. Describe the process of gastrulation and explain its importance. 8. List adult structures derived from each of the primary tissue layers. 9. Using diagrams, identify the various stages of embryonic development of an amphibian. 10. Distinguish between meroblastic cleavage and holoblastic cleavage. 11. List and explain the functions of the extraembryonic membranes which form in bird and reptile eggs. 12. Compare and contrast development in birds and mammals. 13. Explain the relationships among polarity, cytoplasmic determinants and development (mosaic and regulative). 14. Describe how cell extension, contraction and adhesion are involved in shaping the developing embryo. 15. Explain how interactions among the three primary tissue layers influence organogenesis. 16. Explain the relationship between cytoplasmic cues and cell determination. 17. Describe the importance of cell location and orientation along the three body axes with respect to polarity in the embryo, morphogenetic movements, and pattern formation. 18. Explain how positional cues influence pattern formation. 19. Define the following terms: differentiation morphogenesis fertilization zygote acrosome acrosomal reaction acrosomal vesicle acrosomal process bindin vitelline layer fast block to polyspermy cortical reaction cortical granules fertilization membrane slow block to polyspermy cleavage blastomeres vegetal pole meroblastic cleavage holoblastic cleavage morula blastocoel blastula blastopore

gastrulation gastrula invagination archenteron ectoderm mesoderm endoderm organogenesis notochord neural plate neural tube yolk platelets dorsal lip involution yolk plug somites neural crest blastodisc determined cell animal pole positional information morphogen yolk sac amnion

chorion allantois blastocyst inner cell mass trophoblast embryonic disc gray crescent totipotent cytoplasmic determinants mosaic development regulative development fate map pattern formation retinoic acid extraembryonic membranes induction organizer primitive streak

sequences of stages of development development of the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm into organs and/or organ systems morphogenesis concept of determination concept of differentiation concept of induction

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Define the following terms: small intestine pancreas maltose maltase disaccharidases trypsin chymotrypsin carboxypeptidase aminopeptidase dipeptidase enterokinase chyme microvilli lactase amylase chymotrypsin

rectum pancreatic amylase bolus pharynx epiglottis esophagus stomach microvilli lacteal alimentary canal bile enterogastrone maltase emulsification jejunum peristalsis

lipase salivary amylase feces cholecystokinin stomach large intestine (colon) zymogens trypsin mucus cecum goblet cells salivary gland peristalsis liver starch cardiac sphincter

pyloric sphincter saliva pepsin appendix secretin gastrin villi bile salts duodenum crypts nucleases sucrase ileum triglycerides chylomicrons

Role of stomach and intestines in digestion and absorption. Role of pancreas in digestion. Functions of the liver. Location of absorption of the key nutrients. Define peristalsis and describe its role in the digestive tract. Describe how salivation is controlled and list the functions of saliva. Describe the role of salivary amylase in digestion. Describe the sequence of events which occur as a result of the swallowing reflex. Describe the function of the esophagus and explain how peristalsis in the esophagus is controlled. Describe the role of the cardiac and pyloric sphincters. List the four types of secretory cells found in stomach epithelium and what substances they secrete. Describe the function of pepsin. Explain why the stomach normally does not digest itself. Explain how pepsin and acid secretion are regulated and describe the roles of the hormones gastrin and enterogastrone. Describe the cause of ulcers and explain why they are frequently found in the duodenum. Explain how chyme is moved through the small intestine. Describe the sequence of events which occur in response to acid chyme entering the duodenum and include the roles of: Secretin; Bile; Bicarbonate; Pancreatic enzymes; Cholecystokinin (CCK); Enterogastrone; Gall bladder. Describe how pancreatic zymogens for proteolytic enzymes are activated in the duodenum and include the role of the intestinal enzyme enterokinase. Describe enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids including the reactants and products for each enzymatic reaction and whether they occur in the: Oral cavity; Stomach; Lumen of small intestine; Brush border of small intestine. Explain the function of bile; describe where it is produced and stored; and describe its composition. State whether the lumen of the digestive tract is technically inside or outside the body. Explain where most nutrient absorption occurs. Explain why the many folds, villi and microvilli are important in the small intestine. Describe how specific nutrients are absorbed across the intestinal epithelium and across the capillary or lacteal wall and indicate whether the transport is with or against the concentration gradient. Explain what happens to glycerol and fatty acids after they are absorbed into the intestinal epithelium and describe the fate of chylomicrons and lipoproteins.

HORMONES: Define the following terms: vasopressin oxytocin pituitary gluconeogenesis melatonin mineralocorticoids aldosterone growth hormone prolactin giantism

pancreas insulin glucagon Vitamin D thymosin FSH hypothalamus releasing factor inhibiting factors

adrenal cortex adrenal medulla glucocorticoids pineal gland feedback inhibition hormone epinephrine calcitonin PTH

acromegaly MSH TSH trophic hormone ACTH thyroid gland thyroxin parathyroid gland adrenal gland

On the basis of structure and function, distinguish among the different types of chemical messengers. Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands. Describe the relationships among endocrine system components: hormones, endocrine glands, target cells and target cell receptors. List the three general classes of hormones and give examples of each. State which of the three classes of hormones is lipid soluble and explain how this property affects hormone function. Describe the mechanism of steroid hormone action and explain the location and role of steroid hormone receptors. Using epinephrine as an example, explain how nonsteroid hormones act via second messengers, including the roles of adenylate cyclase, cyclic AMP, G proteins and cAMP dependent protein kinase. Compare and contrast the two general modes of hormone action. Describe the location of the hypothalamus and explain how its hormone-releasing cells differ from both endocrine gland secretory cells and other neurons. Describe the location of the pituitary and explain the functions of the posterior and anterior lobes. List the posterior pituitary hormones and describe their effects on target organs. Using antidiuretic hormone as an example, explain how a hormone contributes to homeostasis and how negative feedback can control hormone levels. Define tropic hormone and describe the functions of tropic hormones produced by the anterior pituitary. Explain how the anterior pituitary is controlled. List the hormones of the thyroid gland and explain their role in regulating development and metabolism. Diagram the negative feedback loop which regulates the secretion of thyroid hormones. State the location of the parathyroid glands and describe hormonal control of calcium homeostasis. Distinguish between a and ß cells in the pancreas and explain how their antagonistic hormones (insulin and glucagon) regulate carbohydrate metabolism. List hormones of the adrenal medulla, describe their function and explain how their secretion is controlled. List hormones of the adrenal cortex, describe their function and explain how their secretion is controlled. Describe both the short term and long term endocrine responses to stress. Identify male and female gonads and list the three categories of gonadal steroids. Define gonadotropin and explain how estrogen and androgen synthesis is controlled. Describe the location of the pineal and thymus glands, list their hormone products and describe their functions.

NERVOUS SYSTEM Define the following terms: telencephalon reflex meninges white matter gray matter cerebrospinal fluid ventricles resting potential axon hillock telodendria synaptic vesicles synaptic knobs synapse effector cells norepinephrine action potential sensory neurons motor neurons serotonin threshold potential neuropeptides forebrain diencephalon polarization

central nervous system brain spinal cord cerebral cortex peripheral nervous system astrocytes sensory (afferent) division hypothalamus temporal summation spatial summation depolarization acetylcholine biogenic amines epinephrine hindbrain graded potentials dopamine thalamus cerebellum interneurons reticular formation repolarization saltatory conduction electrical synapse

supporting cells neurons cell body dendrites axon Schwann cells hyper polarization myelin sheath gap junctions rhombencephalon synaptic cleft mesencephalon prosencephalon brainstem autonomic system basal ganglia medulla oblongata pons voltage-sensitive gates glial cells all-or-none event oligodendrocytes multiple sclerosis

presynaptic membrane postsynaptic membrane excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) neurotransmitter molecules summation somatic sensory neurons visceral sensory neurons motor (efferent) division blood-brain barrier somatic system membrane potential node of Ranvier sympathetic division parasympathetic division chemical synapse midbrain refractory period endorphins enkephalins analgesics

List and describe the three major parts of a neuron and explain the function of each. Explain how neurons can be classified by function. Describe the function and location of each type of supporting cell. Explain what a resting potential is, and list four factors that contribute to the maintenance of the resting potential. Define equilibrium potential, and explain why the K+ equilibrium potential is more negative than the resting potential. Define graded potential, and explain how it is different from a resting potential or action potential. Describe the characteristics of an action potential, and explain the role membrane permeability changes and ion gates play in the generation of an action potential. Explain how the action potential is propagated along a neuron. Describe two ways to increase the effectiveness of nerve transmission. Describe synaptic transmission across an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse. Describe the role of cholinesterase and explain what would happen if acetylcholine were not destroyed. List some other possible neurotransmitters. Define neuromodulator and describe how it may affect nerve transmission. Explain how excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP) affect the postsynaptic membrane potential. Explain how a neuron integrates incoming information, including a description of summation. List three criteria for a compound to be considered a neurotransmitter. List two classes of neuropeptides and explain how they illustrate overlap between endocrine and nervous control. Describe two mechanisms by which a neurotransmitter affects the postsynaptic cell. Distinguish between sensory (afferent) nerves and motor (efferent) nerves. Define reflex and describe the pathway of a simple spinal reflex. Distinguish between the functions of the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system. List the major components of the central nervous system. Distinguish between white matter and gray matter. Describe three major trends in the evolution of the vertebrate brain. From a diagram, identify the major structures of the human brain and describe their respective functions: a.Medulla oblongata. b.Pons. c.Cerebellum d. Superior and inferior colliculi. e.Telencephalon. f.Diencephalon. g.Thalamus. h.Hypothalamus. i.Cerebral cortex. j.Corpus callosum.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Define the following terms: atria hydrostatic pressure hemoglobin chordae tendinae intercalated discs bundle of His effects of smoking trachea sinus node Purkinje fibers arteriole

blood pressure bronchial tubes respiratory epithelium plasma diastole systole systolic pressure ventricles bronchi cartilage rings capillary

emphysema mitral valve Bohr effect alveoli platelets mucus vein aortic valve atrioventricular node artery white blood cells

tricuspid valve red blood cells allosteric bronchioles globulins vagus nerve diastolic pressure ciliary action albumin hematocrit serum

__ functions of lung in O2 and CO2 homeostasis __ structure-function relations of heart __ relation of heart muscle and skeletal muscle __ structure/function of the respiratory system __ mechanism of inspiration and expiration __ factors that affect rate of respiration __ effects of nerves on heart rate __ changes in heart during systole and diastole __ structure-function of arteries, arterioles, veins, capillaries __ structure of blood vessels in general __ structure-function of red blood cells and hemoglobin __ fluid and particle transport across the capillary __ the different circulations in the body For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the structures it must pass through on the journey. Define negative pressure breathing and explain how respiratory movements in humans ventilate the lungs. Define the following lung volumes and give a normal range of capacities for the human male: a. Tidal volume. b. Vital capacity. c. Residual volume. Explain how breathing is controlled. Describe how oxygen moves from the alveolus into the capillary and explain why a pressure gradient is necessary. List the components of a vertebrate cardiovascular system. Distinguish between artery and vein. Using diagrams, compare and contrast the circulatory schemes of birds, amphibians and mammals. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the function of each. Explain the advantage of double circulation over a single circuit. Trace a drop of blood through the human heart, listing the structures it passes through en route. List the four heart valves, describe their location and explain their function. Distinguish between systole and diastole. Describe the events of the cardiac cycle and explain what causes the first and second heart sounds. Define heart murmur and explain its cause. Draw the Hb-oxygen dissociation curve, explain the significance of its shape and explain how the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen changes with oxygen concentration. Describe the Bohr effect and explain how the oxygen dissociation curve shifts with changes in carbon dioxide concentration and changes in pH. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across capillaries. Describe the composition of lymph and explain how the lymphatic system helps the normal functioning of the circulatory system. Compare the structures of arteries and veins and explain how differences in their structures are related to differences in their functions. Describe how capillary structure differs from other vessels and explain how this structure relates to its function. Describe how CO2 is picked up at the tissues and deposited in the lungs, describe the role of carbonic anhydrase and state the form most of the CO2 is in as it is transported.

SENSORY and MOTOR MECHANISMS Define the following terms: skeletal muscle sensation perception vitreous humor reception transduction amplification transmission opsin tropomyosin mechanoreceptors Pacinian corpuscles Meissner's corpuscles Merkel's discs tympanic membrane thermoreceptor Ruffini's end organs stapes oval window sclera cornea pupil

myofibrils thin filaments aqueous humor sarcomere Z lines rod cells cone cells fovea sensory adaptation bipolar cells ganglion cells horizontal cells amacrine cells olfactory receptor photoreceptor malleus incus pain receptor cochlea endolymph utricle semicircular canals

myofilaments tetanus thick filaments origin myosin I band A band H zone rhodopsin troponin complex hair cell lens pinna auditory canal middle ear cardiac muscle intercalated discs inner ear organ of Corti choroid iris retina

auditory tube wave summation sensory receptor insertion actin sarcoplasmic reticulum muscle spindle sliding filament model cross-bridges muscle twitch chemoreceptor otoliths gustatory receptor electromagnetic receptor myoglobin smooth muscles end-bulbs of Krause nociceptor perilymph round window saccule

Differentiate between sensation and perception. Give the general function of a receptor cell and explain the five processes involved in this function. List and describe the energy stimulus of the five types of receptors. Using a cross-sectional diagram of human skin, identify the various receptors present and explain the importance of having near-surface and deep-layer receptors for such stimuli as pressure. Using a diagram of the vertebrate eye, identify and give the function ...