HIS 216 Midterm Study Guide PDF

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HI 216: Latin America Since 1826 Latin America and its Nations Study guide for midterm exam Week 2 – Colonial Preamble

Spanish Empire

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● The three systems of labor organization: Encomienda: Iberian system of labor tribute granted by the crown, Indians payed with work in exchange for being Christianized, prioritized the concept of empires with large populations Reparmiento: based on pre-columbian forms of community-based tribute, indigenous communities co-administered this system deciding who they would allocate for temporary labor Hacienda: newcomers from Europe who could not afford Mexico city, moved to the countryside, most work came from daily laborers from nearby Indian communities, ties of kinship and godparenthood connected the communities (easier recruitment)

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● The casta system System of ethnic classification 17th and 18th century From a patrilineal system of classification to one that was based on both paternal and maternal bloodlines Spaniards and Indians at two opposite poles with African element as most negative stain in one’s genealogy Government offices were reserved to Spanish born or American born whites ● The Bourbon reforms Late colonial transformations began when royal administrators in both Spain and Portugal planned to tighten their control over new world possessions and extract more revenues from them Intended to rationalize and modernize the governance of overseas dominance by making them act more like colonies, modern European countries should have colonies that serve as economic interests for their mother countries Appointment of Spanish born administrators (peninsulares) New ports were opened to trade between the Americas and Spain Opening of the colonial trade to a greater number of merchants Tax reform, tightening of the collection system Creation of organized militias Greater separation between state and church Expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain and the Americas Allowed for greater Spanish control of the crown’s possessions in the Americas in the short term

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Increased tension between Criollos (American born elites) and Peninsulares (Spanish born elites) regarding local administration in the Americas Introduced of new views on commerce, politics, and philosophy among Criollo elites- started pondering independence from Spain

● Rio de La Plata (example of “fringe of colonization”) ???? Portuguese Empire

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● Beginning of Slave Trade First serious economic activity was sugar cane which required abundant labor, not many colonists This is why African slavery was introduced to Brazil At first slaves received wages

Sugar Cane in Brazilian Northeast (incl. Dutch occupation) Portuguese introduced sugarcane production in northeastern Brazil in the late 16th century Developed the technology in their tropical Atlantic islands: Madeira and Cape Verde Sugarcane production requires abundant labor, with few colonists the Portuguese started to enslave Indians Faced problems with enslaved, fight to the forest, disease, and refusal to work Introduced African slavery to Brazil 1600-1650 sugar accounted for 95% of Brazil’s economy Early 17th century the Brazilian northeast area was the richest in the Americas Challenges: Dutch occupied the Brazilian Northeast and expelled by an alliance of planters, merchants, and mixed-blood troops, moved to the Caribbean transferring the Brazilian sugarcane technology, becomes the center of the Atlantic trading system and sugarcane production Quilombos: communities of escaped slaves who, many times resort to violence to avoid reenslavement Palmares: biggest quilombo in colonial Brazil, society and government reproduced Central African models, for almost a century they defeated several Portuguese and Dutch expeditions, finally defeated by a special army brought from Sao Paulo ●

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● Bandeirantes (São Paulo, Brazilian Southeast) Backwoodsmen, mixed of Portuguese and Indian, enslaver and slave trader Long duration expeditions seeking gold, precious stones and Indians Gold found in sparsely inhabited hinterland in 1690 Diamonds found in the same region in 1792 New area is renamed “Minas Gerais” Northeastern sugar production in decline (Caribbean competition) Mining became the main economic activity of Brazil through most of the 18th century

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Capital is moved from Salvador to Rio After finding gold Brazil stopped being a backwater colony Brazil’s economic center shifted from the northeast to the southeast Portuguese established permanent settlements beyond the Tordesillas line New expanded borders recognized by Spain with the treaty of Madrid 1750 Society built by gold mining in Brazil (incl. when, where) Brazil exported to Portugal 1.7 million pounds of gold in the 18th century- the largest producer at that time Another quantity was diverted through smuggling or stayed in Brazil Gold was extracted by the forced labor of Africans, but also by whites Mining on riverbeds was extremely hard, slaves could only be worked from 7 to 12 years Serious environmental effects: Minas Gerais had its landscape transformed by mining ●

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Both empires ● Definition of hegemonic power (e.g. as patriarchy) Came to denote the “social or cultural predominance or ascendancy; predominance by one group within a society or milieu” later it could be used to mean “a group or regime which exerts undue influence within a society A kind of domination that implies a measure of consent to those at the bottom, ex. Enslaved africans and indigenous people accepted European religion, also accepting truths ● Definition of transculturation (e.g. in religion) New Latin American communities emerged when there was a combination of Spanish / Portuguese and indigenous / African, the people on top are able to impose the broad outlines of things with those below contributing more subtle things

Week 3 – Independence

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Concepts ● Nation as an imagined community A community that is tied to a land area based on other nations ● Liberalism Believing in progressive ideas Personal property: the only way you can be free is if you own property ● Nativism Community of people born in the country rallying together against the Spaniards

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Five roads to independence (includes material from week 7 - Cuba/Puerto Rico) ● What are these five roads? Slave Revolt (Haiti) Creole Elite (New Granada Perú, Rio de la Plata) Popular Uprising (New Spain) Imperial Agreement (Brazil, Portugal)

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5. US Intervention (New Spain, Philippines, Cuba, Puerto Rico, DR) ● Who were the rebels? 1. Toussaint L’ouvertue: Haitian former slave, lead the slaves to defeat the French 2. José Maria Morelos: a priest, pushed a clear program and wanted independence with a republic, more government participation from Mexicans: independence, republic, popular participation, abolition of slavery, universal rights, end of church’s privileges, agrarian reforms 3. Agustín de Iturbide: Spain sends him to fight the Mexicans, feared if the liberals gained power in Spain he would lose all his privilege 4. Simón Bolivar: liberator of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, and Bolivia, there are statues of him throughout the US, an idealist who studied abroad in Europe, he had a great education and his family was very wealthy, firm Republican values: had a hard time connecting with people, he was very cold and distant which lead him to become a dictator 5. José de San Martín: liberator of Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Perú, and Bolivia, born in Argentina but was raised in Spain ● Where, when, why and how ● Differences between each of them ● Outcomes (continuities?)

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Importance of European events for the different processes of independence in the Americas French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: European monarchies attacked revolution in France, Napoleon seized power in 1799 emperor in 1804, Napoleon attacked Spain and Portugal, thus Spain is distracted by their own issues during this time War in Spain allowed Latin American Independence: costs of war against Napoleon imposed a burden to Spanish Americans, void of power created by the Napoleonic occupation of Spain gave autonomy to Spanish America Spanish king is arrested by Napoleon in 1808 Waiting for the king to return, the liberal constitution of Cádiz they met to rewrite a new constitution in the hopes of establishing a liberal monarchy 1812: liberals wanted to revert Spanish America to colonial status 1814: the return of Ferdinand meant the elimination of the recently-gained autonomy of Spanish-American juntas Importance of fringe colonies in the independence processes ??? Importance of Haitian revolution (connection with week 5 - slavery) - Haitian revolution was the only successful independence revolt led by only slaves, set a negative example for the rest of the countries in the world, and led to a very unstable government post-independence resulting in Haiti being one of the poorest countries in the world

Week 4 – Rupture and Continuity

Spanish America

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● Economic and infrastructure devastation Post independence: economy was destroyed, lack of social cohesion, there was political instability, countries were in states of civil war, but there was an abolition of slavery ● Patronage politics (Caudillo politics) Two institutional bases of power: the church and the military (caudillos, military coups, change but also continuity) Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna 10 time president of Mexico: war hero, political opportunist and switching sides very quickly ● Caudillismo in Mexico, who, when, how Spanish American phenomenon Military leaders and landowners Personal charisma (reputation for bravery) Nativist discourse Patronage networks Source of instability Post-independence social and economic context in Mexico ● Caudillismo in Argentina, who, when, how Unitarians and federalists, unitarians wanted a national government in Buenos Aires and federalists wanted equal provinces in Argentina and protection of local industries Post-independence political context in Argentina Social base of caudillos in Argentina Juan Manuel de Rosas: controlled Buenos Aires for 30 years ● Desert campaign 1833-1834, indigenous attacks to Argentine settlements (to take cattle, and sometimes women) Raquel Indians vs. Mapuche Indians Rosas’ campaign hatls Indian attacks Made allies among the indigenous leaders ● Legacy of caudillismo Isolated, parochial rule Little, weak republics, geographically isolated, controlled by local strongmen Easy target for influence and intervention Neocolonial economic relations

Brazil

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No widespread destruction Absence of a military problem Inherited political and administrative structure Declining of mining Agricultural development (sugar and cotton in the North and tobacco and coffee in the Southeast) Little changes in social structure: 4 million people, half slaves, Brazilian and foreign-born whites land-ownership, commerce, public service, Brazilian and foreign-born blacks and mixed race people: menial labor, domestic labor, plantations ● Post-Independence economic context ● British influence Diplomatic recognition Suppressing rebellions Lower tariffs Indemnification to Portugal End of slave trade Comparison between unstable post-independence Spanish America and stable Brazil - No widespread destruction - Absence of a military problem - Inherited political and administrative structure Mexican -American war - the role of slavery in helping to trigger the war - Texas wanted to keep slaves which created tension between Mexico and Texas, they become their own country

Week 5 – Slavery

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Slave trade, economy, and society ● Origins of Slave Trade in Africa and Portugal Chattel slavery in Ancient and Medieval Europe Pre-colonial slave trade in Africa Africans reduced to slavery by war and debt Europeans connected African systems to an Atlantic market Portuguese were the first Europeans in the slave trade In coastal forts, the Portuguese traded slaves with African kingdoms European demand led to more wars in Africa Evangelization as an excuse for slavery 16th century: Portuguese dominated the trade ● Numbers of slave trade - main recipients of slaves in the Americas Brazil and US Cuba

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● Comparison of the share of slave pop. in Spanish America, Brazil, and the US Brazil US Spanish America ● Slavery in the 19th century and its connections to capitalism Slavery as cornerstone for much of the economics

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● Slavery in cities and the opportunities to buy manumission (freedom) Manumission = freedom, a reward even after payment Freedom should be ‘well deserved’ Hope for manumission helped to discourage rebellions Paternalism, slave seen as children at manumission

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The experience of slavery

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● Adaptation of the newly imported African slave to the world of masters had to be educated and trained Slave gave loyalty, master gave “protection” and belonging/identity They kept their religion but had to practice in secret ● Adaptation of the newly imported African slave to the world of fellow slaves Was as difficult as adapting into the world of masters Fellow slaves in the same situation but a group of foreigners (slaves from all over Africa) or a foreign community (Brazilian born slaves vs. new African arrivals) ● Ways in which a slave could rebel Individual rebellion: suicide, violence, sabotage, flight Or collective rebellion, runaway communities: quilombos or mocambos (in Brazil) Palenques (in Cuba) Slave revolts: slave owners feared a general slave revolt like Haiti

Week 6 – Liberalism and Conservatism

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Liberal reaction to Caudillos and Conservatives - Caudillos were phased out once liberalism came in ● Definition of nineteenth-century Liberalism Every individual has rights (property, free speech, any kind of religion etc) Wanted to get rid of privilege of the church, old customs and traditions etc. Equality under the law and reason Getting religion and traditions out of public life ● Progress and economic Expansion in Latin america (British role) The three types of liberalism in Latin America

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● Anti-Clerical Liberalism (what, who, when) Catholic church should not interfere with public life in Spanish America

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○ Where it occurred (most Spanish America) ○ Main example (Mexico) Conservatives blamed liberals for their attempt to mimic US values and institutions but liberals favored modernization and progress over tradition, they proposed end of the church’s monopoly in education and redistribution of church lands ○ Main ideas (separation between the church and the state, end of collective ownership of land) ○ Effect of Mexican liberal policies affecting peasants and indigenous peoples (connection with week 8 - Mexican Revolution)

● Anti-People Liberalism (what, who, when) Backwardness derived from common traits of the Argentine population in Argentina ○ Where it occurred (Argentina) ○ Main ideas (education, immigration) ○ Concrete policies in Argentina ● Anti-Slavery Liberalism (what, who, when) Abolition and end of monarchy as solutions to bring progress in Brazil ○ Where it occurred (Brazil) ○ Main ideas (abolition, republic) ○ Effect on Brazilian politics

Week 7 – Neocolonialism

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Commodity boom - Case Study 1 - Beef and Grain ● Where, Argentina The Pampas (South America’s Temperate Plains) Fertile, temperate plains, Southern Brazil, Uruguay, and Central-Eastern Argentina ● Necessary conditions (capital, technology, labor, stability…) Lack of capital: provided by British investment, allowed the creation of steamboats and refrigeration Lack of labor: solved with nineteenth century European immigration Technological breakthroughs: steam ships and refrigeration allowed the trade in meat and grains to Europe Political stability: allowed the incorporation of more land in the southern Pampa and northern Patagonia into ● Environmental conditions - the Pampas Decades of conflicts with horse-riding peoples 6000 troops, remington rifles, transported by railroad From one third to a half of the indigenous population died Annexation of the Southern Pampas and Patagonia ● Land conditions - Conquest of the desert Indigenous house riders came and attacked farmers and cattle to steal food ● Outcome - sustained growth or bust? Expansion into new lands, big landowners, industrial agricultural production, exports to Europe

(mainly the UK), Argentina grew 6% per year

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Commodity boom - Case Study 2 - Coffee ● Where, Brazil South American rainforest, east coast ● Environmental conditions - the Atlantic Forest Tropical and subtropical forest, 500,000 square miles 20,000 species of known plants 992 species of birds 270 species of mammals (plus thousands of fish, reptiles, insects) Only 11% of the forest remains ● Importance of Brazil in the coffee market For 160 years Brazil has dominated the coffee market Still the top producer 33% of world production The second largest consumer, after the US (but has a higher per capita consumption) Traditionally Brazil has exported coffee varieties for mass consumption Coffee industry created teh conditions for the first industrialization in the state of Sao Paulo ● Outcome - sustained growth or bust? In the 1960’s, with Brazil’s second industrialization coffee lost importance in Brazilian economy Nowadays coffee represents only 2% of Brazilian export income Commodity boom - Case Study 3 - Guano ● Where, Peru ● Environmental conditions - the Cormorant (bird) Atacama desert ● Market conditions - demand in Europe and US Britain: industrial revolution, growing urban population, new techniques for better crop rotations, new breeds of livestock, enclosure and drainage of land, more intensive use of fertilizers US: plantations growing cotton, and tobacco, by 1850 guano represented 22 percent of commercial fertilizer sales; by 1860 this figure had risen to 43 percent ● Outcome - sustained growth or bust? Depletion by 1869: best-quality guano had been exhausted Competition from nitrates: after 1883, loss of northern Atacama to Chile, boost of nitrate mining in the desert Competition from other sources: guano from Africa, superphosphates animal bone potash from Germany Nitrogen extraction from atmosphere: after 1900, Haber-Bosch method of nitrogen fixation and ammonia production, boomed in World War I Commodity boom - Case Study 4 - Bananas ● Where, Central America 2 companies merged together, formed a monopoly ● Economic, political, and social conditions - creation of US market, US multinationals, latifundios ● Outcomes - banana republics (definition, includ. ‘enclaves’)

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US CEO’s formed their own cities where they ran the companies and had poor indigenous workers

Monroe-Doctrine and Roosevelt Corollary - European countries should not continue to intervene in countries in which US has established themselves Pro and anti imperialist debate after the Spanish American War - Beginning of American intervention in the greater Caribbean, US raised tariffs to Cuban sugar, turmoil in Cuba, return of republicans in exile, fight for Cuban independence from Spain - Spain is defeated in four months, US gains Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines - Pro annexation arguments: strategic reasons (followers of Mahan), need for raw materials and markets, nationalism, and attitudes toward other peoples (racism or paternalism) - Anti-expansion arguments: violation of democratic principles (US core) Independence of Panama as an example of US imperialism
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