HSC Modern History Summary Notes ( Trials) PDF

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HIGH BAND 5 MODERN HISTORY TRIAL NOTES
1. Power and Authority in the Modern World 1919-46
2. National Studies: Russia and the Soviet Union 1917–1941
3. Peace and Conflict: Conflict in Europe 1935-45
4. Change in the Modern World: Apartheid in South Africa 1960-94

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HSC Course: Modern History Summary Study Notes

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HSC Topic 1: Power and Authority in the Modern World 1919-46 The concepts of ‘power’ and ‘authority’ Power: ability to exert influence - capacity to attain obedience e.g. twin elements of fear and reward. Authority: institutionalised control through which power can be exerted. Authority is the official foundations of sovereignty (e.g. democracy = people’s authority, theocracy = religious authority/divine mandate). ●

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Widely acknowledged by historians and political scientists that at the heart of political power are the twin elements of fear and reward (fear of punishment and hope for reward). Authority justifies the use of power; power gives meaning to authority and can make people accept the source of power (relationship between concepts of ‘power’ and ‘authority’).

A. Survey: An overview of the peace treaties which ended WW1 and their consequences ●

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WW1 ended abruptly during Winter 1918, as Central Powers crumbled one by one. ○ Began with Bulgaria, pulled out 29 September and ended with Armistice (11/11/1918) Financial costs estimated at over $300 billion → Germany’s reparations to pay for ‘starting the war’ as a result of the Paris Peace Conference.

1.1. Paris Peace Conference ●

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January 1919: debates about foundation of authority in new post-WW1 world took place in Paris; Historian Margaret Macmillan → “ six months that changed the world.” At the outset, P.P. Conference had two main goals: 1. To prevent a recurrence of disaster in another world war. 2. To justify the vast costs (lives and money) that had been lost during WW1 All victorious nations except Russia attended: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: peace treaty signed 3 March 1918 between new Bolshevik government of ○ Russia and Central Powers. Ended Russia's participation in WW1. P.P. Conference involved the redrawing of the map of Central Europe, as well as the creation of new countries e.g. Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq and Syria. Rules of P.P. Conference drawn up by ‘Great Powers’ (Britain, France, US, Italy and Japan).

1.2. The role of the ‘Big four’ 1.2.1. George Clemenceau (France) ●

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French PM Clemenceau was 71 in 1919, and had seen France invaded by Germany twice; Determined not to let it happen a third time. Recognised that France shared a border with Germany, and due to differences in birth rates (3-4 children per German family vs. 2 in France), France would always be at risk of invasion. Therefore advocated a harsh peace, with the following consequences for Germany:

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Payment of reparations Loss of territory Ban on conscription

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Loss of all colonies Ban on having an air force Limits to size of army (to 100 000 troops)

1.2.2. David Lloyd George (Britain) ●

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British PM Lloyd George’s wanted to guarantee British security, therefore took control of German Navy prior to P.P. Conference → naval power of Germany was only real threat to Britain. Also approved of the Royal Navy Blockade, which limited food to starving Germans until treaty was signed. Lloyd George also supported Woodrow Wilson’s softer approach to peace: ○ British did not want Germany crippled, as it would give France too much power. ○ Wanted German postwar economy to be healthy enough to buy British manufactured goods.

1.2.3. Vittorio Orlando (Italy) ● ● ●

Came to Paris with high hopes of major territorial gains e.g. control of Adriatic coastline. Did not receive many territories, as other Great Powers suspected Italy’s imperial ambitions. Orlando left P.P. Conference deeply dissatisfied and failure resulted in the end of his political career in as an Italian statesman; Paved the way for a right-wing dictatorship in Italy under Benito Mussolini, who took power in October 1922.

1.2.4. Woodrow Wilson (US) ●

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Pres. Woodrow Wilson regarded himself as an idealist and believed that he and America (new world) could save Europe (old world) from itself and further war. If Orlando needed territorial gains to justify Italy entering WW1, Wilson needed the League of Nations to justify breaking his 1916 re-election promise - to keep America out of the war. Wilson hoped that founding the League to ensure lasting peace would make American people agree that entering the war was the right decision. Before US entered WW1 (22 Jan 1917), Wilson presented a speech to Congress about ‘Peace Without Victory’, included Wilson’s famous ‘Fourteen Points’, featuring clauses instructing for free trade, freedom of the seas, int’l disarmament and the establishment of the League of Nations. British and French did not support 14 Points, and Germany had already denied some of the provisions in Wilson’s ‘Peace Without Victory Speech’ October 1918: Germans losing and asked Wilson to arrange peace based on original 14 Points. Wilson replied by saying new peace terms would be decided after an armistice.

1.3. The Treaty of Versailles ●

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Not the only Treaty signed at the P.P. Conference, however it is the most famous; Included many of Clemenceau’s harsh conditions - Germany lost 12% land, overseas colonies, reduced military, was made to pay reparations and accept responsibility for WW1. Accepting responsibility, formally set out in Article 231: the ‘War Guilt Clause’ During the interwar period, most important consequences of the Treaty of Versailles were:

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1. Failure of the US Senate to ratify Treaty of Versailles; as the League was established within the Treaty, this also meant US did not become a member - a personal failure for Wilson. 2. Resentment towards the Treaty in Germany inspired/exploited by many conservative groups. Germans claimed that Treaty was a d  iktat (partly true) ○ P.P. Conference initially a preliminary discussion of terms, to be negotiated with German delegates for final terms, however this negotiation never took place.

1.4. The League of Nations ●

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Key objective was to ‘promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security by accepting obligations not to resort to war.’ Associated with Wilson, however similar ideas of an international peacekeeping organisation were proposed to maintain peace and limit growth of armaments. Participants at P.P. Conference established League of Nations Commission, who drew up the plans of the League (Covenant of the League of Nations, 28 April 1919). ○ Focused on implementing peace treaties ending the Great War. Main organisations included the Permanent Court of International Justice, International Labour Organisation and series of technical organisations for economics, health, transport and communication.

B. The rise of dictatorships after the First World War 2.1. The conditions that enabled dictators to rise to power in the interwar period ●

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Germany, Italy and Japan all left P.P. Conference deeply dissatisfied, and the new left-wing communist dictatorship in Russia was banned entirely. Each dictatorship is also unique (Latin term sui generis ), and must be differentiated. All these societies did, however, (1) reject democratic values and (2) place all loyalty to the state above the rights and freedoms of individuals. Basis of power in dictatorships was based on principles of fear and reward, and their ideology rested on loyalty to a particular leader, ideology or set of values.

2.1.1. Key events in the rise of the dictatorships after WW1 (some included later) 1917

The Bolshevik Party (later known as the Communist Party) takes power in Russia.

1919

Benito Mussolini founds the Fascist Party in Italy.

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October: Mussolini takes power in Italy and establishes a fascist dictatorship that ends democratic government. December: The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics formed with Russia as the central member.

1924

Joseph Stalin becomes head of the Communist Party in the USSR.

1929

The Great Depression creates massive unemployment and economic hardship in Japan, Italy and Germany, conditions encourage public support of dictators. A ‘cult of personality’ begins in Russia/USSR, establishing Stalin’s authority to hold power.

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1936-38

Stalin stages purges with the arrest and murder of many of his potential political rivals.

1937

Italy and Spain join Germany and Japan and they all become known as the Axis Powers.

2.1.2. Europe in the interwar period ●

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Great Depression: period of severe economic downturn that began in the US and quickly spread around the world during 1929-1939, WW1 caused major long-term economic and social issues, which were further impacted by the effects of the Great Depression (global economic depression and unemployment): ○ 1920 global manufacturing was 7% lower than pre-WW1; 1920 manufacturing in Germany, Belgium, France and most of Eastern Europe 30% lower than levels prior to outbreak of WW1.

2.1.3. Rising dictatorships in Russia, Italy and Japan ● ●

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Economic instability caused citizens to question the actions of current institutions. Challenges came from two sides: Communist Parties, inspired by Russian success in 1917 and promise of new classless society; ‘Right-wing’ anti-communist groups i.e. Fascist Parties. Dictatorships emerged in interwar period partly because of deep, cultural authoritarian traditions that existed in Europe before immediate economic/social crises that challenge democratic order.

2.2. Overview of the features of the dictatorships that emerged in Russia, Italy, Japan 2.2.1. Russia and Joseph Stalin (1878 - 1953) (Ruled 1929 to 1953) Conditions in Russia: Lenin and Trotsky ●

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Dislocation caused by WW1 led to political upheaval in Russia that caused the Romanov gov’t to be overthrown in February Revolution 1917. Caused unstable political situation exploited by a strong leader (Lenin) of a disciplined party (Bolsheviks), who, using armed force, was able to take power from disunited opponents Launched their revolution in October 1917 in the name of the Petrograd Soviet, taking control of all key government positions in Petrograd. In March 1918, the Bolsheviks signed a peace treaty with Germany, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk; withdrew Russia from WW1; popular choice with the Russian population Compared with Western Europe, Russia was economically and socially backwards; Before the Bolshevik Revolution (Oct. 1917), Russian society was dominated by a few extremely wealthy, landowning aristocratic families, but ⅔ of Russian population were poor peasants. Joseph Stalin came into power following Lenin’s death in 1924; based authority on two precepts: 1. Claimed to be Lenin’s chosen successor and loyal servant of the Communist Party 2. Claimed to be the new prophet of Marxist (communist) ideology. After Lenin’s death, there was a power struggle within Communist party between loyal communist party member Stalin and the charismatic and widely known Leon Trotsky.

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Trotsky, as War Minister, grew the size and strength of the Red Army (vs. White Armies) and over the following months the Bolsheviks took control of all main cities in central Russia. Stalin skillfully used his position as General Secretary of the Communist Party to build support within/without the party e.g. Historian Sheila Fitzpatrick refers to this stage as ‘patronage’, the first stage of use of reward in Stalin’s dictatorship process. Soon after securing leadership, Stalin created a ‘cult of personality’ around Lenin and named himself the successor during Lenin’s eulogy in 1924; Trotsky was deliberately left uninvited. Stalin gained access to Lenin’s documents and became governing voice of communist ideology, developing his own ‘cult of personality’ status. Stalin placed himself as the hero of Soviet history, and utilised art, film and media to depict himself above everyone else in the Soviet Union.

Collectivisation ●

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From 1927, peasant land was increasingly brought under direct govt. control through ‘collectivisation initiative’, which was thought to increase food supply to urban areas. Condensed individual landholdings with various purposes into a large state owned property with a single purpose to produce food supplies to be distributed nationwide. In 1928, more than 97% Soviet Union agricultural land was under private peasant control. In less than a decade, 93% land had been collectivised Failed miserably because peasant farmers refused to work under new conditions. By 1940s, collectivisation failed and agricultural burden increased due to impacts of WW2. Stalin blamed some of the wealthier peasants (kulaks), for failure of collectivisation, and declared them enemies of the people and traitors to the revolution. Kulaks subject to arrest, exile, imprisonment or execution. Stalinist regime increasingly sent kulaks to the gulags, as well as a means to punish other opponents.

Fear and reward under Stalin Key reason for Stalin’s success after Lenin’s death was use of rewards; Offering of rewards become institutionalised; patronage become part of the methods of the Stalinist govt. Also extended to party members who would meet targets; E  .g. Alexei Stakhanov - coal-miner who received celebrity status for meeting quota of coal consistently. ● Fear was another key element of Stalin’s dictatorship e  .g. mass ‘purges’ occurring between 1937 and 1938, which now included regular citizens as opposed to possible political threats. ● Stalin also killed the ‘Old Bolsheviks’ for fear that they would revolt on the basis of prior knowledge and experience, or challenge Stalin’s rule. ● Stalin helped transform Soviet Union into a global superpower, with modern and industrial urban areas, increased literacy, electricity and improved transport, at heavy costs of human life. 2.2.2. Italy and Benito Mussolini (1993 - 1945) ●

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Although there was suppression of individual freedom, Mussolini was not nearly as brutal as Stalin or Hitler were in their dictatorships. Italian Fascism was neither marked by extreme racial thinking (Nazi Germany), nor was it influenced by an ideology (Russia); the core of Italian Fascism was the assertion of nationalism. 6

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Also, it was defined more for what is opposed, than what it supported; Mussolini’s fascism was anti-communist and anti-democratic; Movement grew out of discontent about results of WW1. Italian Fascism Similarities

Both Italian Fascism and German Nazism described as conservative, anti-communist responses to capitalism in crisis. Crisis in question: disruption of WW1, economic uncertainty of 1920, high levels of unemployment born from the Great Depression.

Differences

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German Nazism

Mussolini came to power > decade before Hitler. Italy on winning side of WW1 and involved in ‘Big Four’ in P.P. Conference. Antisemitism and racial issues did not appear as themes in Italian Fascism until 1938.

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Germany had lost WW1. Antisemitism and racial discrimination was very present.

Democracy failed in Italy because of lack of deep societal roots for democracy. ○ Pre-1912: voting right only for men w/ formal education who paid a certain level of income tax. ○ 1912 election reform: extended vote to all males > 21 y.o. who had served in armed forces. Economy fragile post-WW1 and no access to loans from wartime allies → demand for wartime industrial production decreased and unemployment grew. ○ By end of 1919, there were more than 2 million unemployed men in Italy. Fascist Party founded by Mussolini in March 1919 → numbers rapidly grew in this ‘first wave’ of fascism in response to crisis. 1  00 000 members by February 1921. October 1922: Mussolini led the ‘march’ on Rome → powerful display of strength; one of many myths that constitute these dictatorships. According to Historian Mark Mazower, trigger of Italian Fascism was introduction of universal male suffrage (1919 reforms) → meant males over 21 could vote. Real democracy had created fear within society, as they were not accustomed to being held accountable for political choices. Rapid rise of Italian Fascist Party due to multiple factors: ○ Cultural sympathy and respected history of Imperial Rome, associated with authoritarian values and a distrust of democracy; Disappointment with Italy's results of P.P. Conference. ○ Economic recession and high unemployment; Growing class conflict and fears of communism. ○ Positive image/vision presented to Italian people by Mussolini and Fascists, who claimed to offer an alternative middle way to liberal democracy on one side and communism on the other. ○ Acceptance of Fascists by the Catholic Church.

2.2.3. Japan - the militarists ●

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After a long military career, Hideki Tojo (1884-1948) become PM of Japan (October 1941, just prior to Pearl Harbour attack that brought the US into WW2). Tojo not a dictator in 1941, but would become one eventually, by gradually fulfilling more political roles e.g. PM, Minister for War, Minister for Armaments, Minister for Education …

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Tojo’s rise to power began during factional power struggles within Imperial Japanese Army (1920s and 30s); Great Depression hit Japan very hard - downturn in global markets, tariffs and trade restrictions; growing domestic population strained limited food supply. ○ Followed Western example - exploited food and acquired territory of China and Korea. Army did not answer to the parliament (diet ) , which adhered to new Meiji Constitution, but answered directly to the Emperor → army was real power behind Japanese throne, therefore had its own internal issues - however, Japan has never had a ‘European’ style political revolution. Unlike European dictatorships, Tojo rose steadily through the ranks, vs. ceasing power. Even at height of power, Tojo was ‘the first among equals’ - part of military oligarchy. ○ Historian Ian Kershaw described Japanese system of gov’t as an ‘autocratic bureaucracy’. Tojo’s power was limited - his power was always subject to authority of the army and authority of the Emperor (descended from gods; quasi-divine nature), to which Tojo owed power and loyalty. Japan officially a Constitutional Monarchy - had a constitution, held elections, had a parliament etc. ○ Not very effective, liberalism failed in Japan because of the balance of power; Tilting towards military/right; Saw itself as beholden to the West and wanted to prove national strength. ○ ‘Asia for the Asians’ - anti-Western Imperialism (Asia for the Japanese) Japanese industrial class needed resources, looked outwards - Korea, Taiwan, move toward Manchuria (1931 Japanese invasion) for coal-rich land, iron and access to ocean ports. Japan interested in controlling the maritime ports for trade e.g. Macau, Hong Kong etc. 1937: Rape of Nanjing - Japanese obliterated civilians and took the port, one army literally murdering civilians, defying Geneva Convention 1929 (rules of engagement/laws of war) - Japan did not sign Air force and maritime fleets of Japan increasing, only real threat of t...