Human Biology Final Review PDF

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Human Biology P 130 final exam review; Includes chapters 1-16...

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Chapter 14 – Lymphatic System The main functions of the lymphatic system… 1. Defend against infection and disease 2. Return tissues to the bloodstream What is a pathogen? Disease-causing organism What is immunity? The ability to resist infection and disease What are the two types? 1. Innate (Non-Specific) 2. Adaptive (Specific Immunity) Components of the lymphatic system (4) 1. Lymphatic Vessels (Lymphatics) 2. Lymph Fluid 3. Lymphocytes 4. Lymphoid tissues and organs The fluid found in lymphatic vessels is called? Lymph What is the main function? It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues, and contains infection-fighting white blood cells throughout the body List some of the lymph tissues and organs… 1. Lymph Glands 2. Spleen 3. Thyroid Gland 4. Thymus Gland 5. MALT Tissue 6. Appendix Primary lymphatic organs vs secondary lymphatic organs? Primary Lymphatic Organs: Lymphocytes are formed and matured

Secondary Lymphatic Organs: Lymphocytes are activated and cloned Lymphatic capillaries collect… Interstitial Fluid and Lymph They surround blood capillaries. One-way valves prevent… Backflow into lymphatic Vessels We have two major lymphatic ducts that return excess fluid to the blood. List them and what areas do they serve? 1.

Thoracic Duct— Lower body, and Left side of upper body

2. Right Lymphatic Duct— Right side of upper body, and Right subclavian vein They both drain excess fluid into the SUBCLAVIAN vein of either side. It merges with the internal jugular vein. These two merge to make the brachiocephalic vein. Both (R/L) brachiocephalic veins make the _____________ and return excess fluid back to the heart. What is lymphedema? Swelling if a limb as a result of blocked lymphatic ducts

Lymphopoiesis Lymphocytes derived from this cell… Hemocytoblast The three lymphocytes are… 1. B-Cells 2. T-Cells 3. NK Cells The lymphocyte that migrates to the thymus to differentiate and mature is the… T-Cell The function of each lymphocyte is… T Cells: Responsible for immune response B Cells: Secrete antibodies (aka immunoglobulins) NK Cells: Act as immune surveillance cells T Cells are broken down into 4 major cells. List them please.

1. Cytotoxic T-Cells 2. Helper T-Cells 3. Suppressor T-Cells 4. Regulatory T-Cells Antibodies are secreted from which lymphocyte? B-Cells The lymphoid tissue open to the environment that help protect us from pathogens is called… Lymphoid Nodules What is MALT? Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissues: Tonsils, Peyer Patches, and Appendix Lymph nodes are different to lymph nodules in that they are… Non-Encapsulated Pathogens are found in lymph. FALSE How are pathogens filtered from lymph? T-Cells and B-Cells are activated and macrophages, and dendritic cells destroy pathogens The vessel that brings lymph to the lymph node is called…Afferent Lymphatics The vessel that takes lymph away from the lymph node is called… Efferent Lymphatics Macrophages are found in the medulla which is the INNER portion of the lymph node. T cells and B cells are found in the cortex which is the OUTER portion of the lymph node. What happens at the thymus? T-Cells are produced and matured The spleen is considered the smallest lymphatic tissue. FALSE Some of its functions are: 1. Destroy worn out blood cells and returns breakdown products to liver 2. Form blood cells in fetus and lymph in adults 3. Acts as blood resiverie during hemorrhage The body provides resistance against pathogens. This is also known as… Immunity The difference between the nonspecific and specific immune response is that nonspecific acts slow. FALSE

INNATE IMMUNITY Also known as: Non-Specific Immunity Do they attack specific pathogens/threats? NO What is the first line of defense? Non-Specific Immunity (INNATE) What other types of innate defenses are found in the body? 1. Physical Barriers 2. Phagocytic Cells 3. Immunological Surveillance 4. Interferons 5. Complement 6. Inflammation 7. Fever What is a physical barrier? Please list some of them. 1. Skin 2. Hair 3. Secretions 4. Mucous Membranes If a pathogen is able to penetrate physical barriers… the body would respond by activating cellular defenses. This is the second line of defense. T or F. The main player in cellular defenses are… Phagocytes Natural Killer cells need to recognize FOREIGN antigens to elicit a response. This is known as… Immunological Surveillance What is the function of perforins? Create holes in target cell membrane, killing the cell Also part of innate immunity is the complement system. What is the function? Inflammation consists of 4 parts. List them please.

1. Swelling 2. Redness 3. Heat 4. Pain Inflammation promotes regeneration and slows pathogen spreading. TRUE Is having a fever beneficial? Explain. A mild fever is beneficial because it increases metabolism, where a high fever is dangerous and can cause neural problems ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY Also known as: Specific Immunity What is an antigen? Antibody Complex Two types of adaptive immunity: 1. Cell-mediated 2. Antibody-mediated ●

T Cells responsible for… pathogens living inside the cell

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B Cells responsible for… pathogens in body fluids

Adaptive responses may be active or passive. TRUE Adaptive responses can also be natural or artificial. TRUE

Active immunity Exposed to an antigen? YES Naturally acquired active immunity? Exposed to pathogens in the environment Artificially acquired active immunity? Stimulated through vaccination Passive immunity Exposed to an antigen? NO

Naturally acquired passive immunity? Antibodies provided to baby through placental transfer or after birth, through breast milk Artificially acquired passive immunity? Antibodies are injected to fish infection or disease Four properties of adaptive immunity. Please explain each. 1. Specificity- Antigen recognition(specific response to specific antigens) 2. Versatility- Produces millions of different lymphocytes 3. Memory- First exposure triggers development of memory cells, second exposure triggers faster, stronger, and longer immune response 4. Tolerance- Exists when immune system does not respond to “self” antigens What is the difference between the first and second pathogen exposure? First Pathogen Exposure: triggers development of memory cells Second Pathogen Exposure: triggers faster, stronger, and longer immune response CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY T Cells or B Cells? T-Cells T Cells are activated by binding a foreign _____________________ Antigens are presented to the T Cell via receptor cells called… Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Proteins MHC Proteins Found on the surface of cell membranes. MHC Class 1 will recognize cells as foreign. TRUE MHC Class 2 are found in lymphocytes and Antigen-Presenting Cells. How do APCs work? Phagocytize pathogens and foreign antigens Two types of APCs… 1. Phagocytes 2. Dendritic Cells T Cells get activated by binding the foreign antigen on the APC. FALSE

The foreign antigen is presented on a MHC 2 protein. TRUE Once T Cell gets activated, it will differentiate into 4 cells. List them please. 1.

Cytotoxic— Destroys bacteria, fungi, and transplanted tissue

2. Helper T-Cell— Stimulate both cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity 3. Memory Cells— Are in reserve to mount a rapid attack if the antigen appears again; become cytotoxic and helper t-cells when needed 4. Suppressor T-Cells— Limit degree of immune response Helper T Cells are important in that they help stimulate T Cell and B Cell activation. TRUE When a T Cell gets activated, it proliferates into more active T Cells and memory cells. What is the importance of memory cells? Mounts rapid attack if the same antigen appears again ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY T Cells or B Cells? B-Cells B Cells must also bind the foreign antigen on the APC to become activated. TRUE Once the B Cell binds the foreign antigen, it must be fully activated by the HELPER T Cell. This whole process is called… Sensitization The once activated B cell will proliferate into… 1. Plasma Cells- Secrete large amounts of antibodies 2. Memory B-Cells- Held in reserve for second response The plasma cells will secrete… antibodies Memory Cells will play a role in… Second Response The antibody structure consists of an antigen binding site. What is important about it? Determine the specificity of antibody Difference between constant and variable segments? Constant Segments- Provide base for antibody Variable Segments- Antigen binding sites at free tip List the 5 antibodies:

1.

IgG- Largest and most diverse, responsible for resistance against viruses and bacteria, can cross the placenta for passive immunity

2. IgM- Attack bacteria, and responsible for cross-reactions of blood types 3. IgA- Found in exocrine secretions like tears and saliva, Attack antigens before they enter the body 4. IgE- Stimulates basophils and mast cells to release histamine, and involved in inflammatory and allergic response 5. IgD- Attached to B-Cells, and aid in sensitization Responsible for passive immunity through breast milk… IgG If you get a blood transfusion reaction… IgM If you have an allergic reaction… IgE Three hormones to the immune response… 1.

Tumor Necrosis Factors (TNFs)- Slow tumor growth and kill tumor cells, and stimulate neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

2. Phagocytic Regulators- Coordinate specific and nonspecific defenses by adjusting phagocyte activity 3. Colony-Stimulating Factors (CSFs)- Stimulate production of blood cells in bone marrow and phagocytes in lymphoid tissues Three types of Abnormal immune response… 1. Autoimmune Disorders 2. Immunodeficiency Diseases 3. Allergies An excessive response to an antigen is the fancy definition of an… Allergies What is anaphylaxis? 1. Immediate Hypersensitivity 2. Hives

3. Smooth muscles in airways contract 4. Can produce drop in blood pressure leading to circulatory failure (aka anaphylactic shock) Chapter 15 – Respiratory System Main function is to get oxygen in and out of lungs. The goal is gas exchange. TRUE Some of the functions are… 1. Provides large area for gas exchange 2. Moves O2 and CO2 3. Protects respiratory surfaces 4. Produces sound 5. Contains receptors for the sense of smell Structures/Organs of the respiratory system 1. Nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses 2. Pharynx 3. Larynx 4. Trachea 5. Bronchi and Bronchioles 6. Lungs and Alveoli Respiratory System divided into upper and lower portions. Lower Resp. System begins at the pharynx. FALSE (Larynx) Conducting Portion and Respiratory Portion. Difference? Conducting Portion: Filters, warms, and humidifies air, lined with respiratory mucosa with cilia Respiratory Portion: Where gas exchange occurs Filtering, Warming and Humidification of Air occurs where? The Conducting Portion The mucosa of the pharynx and trachea has cilia. Why? Cilia propels mucus across the epithelial surface

Your nostrils are also called… External Nares The nasal cavity is divided by the… Nasal Septum We are able to smell through the stimulation of… Olfactory Receptors The function of nasal conchae is to… 1. Increase surface area 2. Increase air turbulence within the nasal cavity 3. Warm, moisten and filter incoming air The Pharynx is also called… Throat The type of epithelium is… Ciliated Stratified Squamous Epithelium It is divided into three parts… 1.

Nasopharynx- Contains pharyngeal tonsils

2. Oropharynx- Contains palatine tonsils 3. Laryngopharynx- Functions in digestion and respiration The voice box is called… Larynx The opening to the trachea is the… Glottis What is so important about the epiglottis? Explain. Covers the glottis during swallowing to prevent entry of liquid or food into the respiratory tract Adam’s apple is also called… Thyroid Cartilage The false vocal cords produce sound. FALSE Short vocal cords produce a high pitch while long vocal cords produce a low pitch. TRUE The trachea is lined with “C” shaped tracheal cartilage. Why? The trachea divides into… The Bronchi The Primary bronchi branch into the SECONDARY bronchi which will further branch into… From the tertiary bronchi we have BRONCHIOLES. They will branch out approximately 32 times.

The end of the conducting zone is… With each bronchial branch, the diameter gets smaller and cartilage is lost for smooth muscle. Why? Sympathetic stimulation relaxes smooth muscle which leads to… Bronchodilation Parasympathetic stimulation contracts smooth muscle which leads to… Bronchoconstriction The beginning of the respiratory portion is the… Bronchi From there the path is the following: Respiratory → Bronchiole → Alveolar Duct → Alveolar Sac → Alveoli Why do we have millions of alveoli? Increase surface area, and allows for extensive, rapid gas diffusion What happens at the alveoli? Gas Exchange Pneumocytes I vs Pneumocytes II? Pneumocytes I- Thin, simple squamous epithelium, roaming alveolar macrophages Pneumocytes II- Produce surfactant, lack of surfactant triggers Respiratory Distress Syndrome Three parts to the respiratory membrane. List them please. 1. Squamous Epithelial Cells lining the alveoli 2. Capillary Endothelial Cells of the adjacent capillary 3. Fused Basement Membranes between alveolar and endothelial cells LUNGS Left lung has 2 lobes Right lung has 3 lobes The BASE sits at the diaphragm The cardiac notch of the left lung gives room to the… Heart The serous membrane surrounding the lung is called… Visceral Pleura Pleural fluid reduces… Friction between the layers as the lungs expand and contract Air around the lung and inability to expand to lung is called…

Four parts to Respiration. List them please. 1.

Pulmonary Ventilation- Moving air in and out of the lungs; occurs due to differences in pressure

2. External Respiration- Gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli, OXYGEN is loaded into the blood and CARBON DIOXIDE is unloaded from the blood 3. Respiratory Gas Transport- Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream 4. Internal Respiration- Gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries, leads to cellular respiration A single breath is called… Respiratory Cycle Breaths per minute… Respiratory Rate PULMONARY VENTILATION Remember: as the volume increases, pressure drops. Inverse relationship! INCREASE IN VOLUME DECREASES AIR PRESSURE DECREASE IN VOLUME INCREASES AIR PRESSURE Inhalation Lung volume? INCREASES Lung Pressure? DECREASES Atmosphere Pressure? DECREASES Air in or out? IN Diaphragm? CONTRACTS Rib Cage? Exhalation Lung volume? DECREASES Lung Pressure? INCREASES Atmosphere Pressure? INCREASES Air in or out? OUT

Diaphragm? RELAXES Rib Cage? Quiet vs Forced Breathing? Quiet Breathing- Uses muscles of inspiration: diaphragm and external intercostals, exhalation is passive Forced Breathing- Uses primary and accessory muscles for inhalation, and internal intercostals and abdominals for exhalation What is lung compliance? The expandability of the lungs to meet demands of O2 needs Lung Volumes to know. List them please. Tidal capacity- Amount of air moved in and out of lungs during quiet breathing, usually about 500 ml Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)- Amount of air that can be taken in above VT— usually about 2100 ml-3200 ml Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)- Amount of air voluntarily pushed out forcefully at the end of VT, usually about 1200 ml Residual volume- Amount of air remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation, usually about 1200 ml Minimal Volume- Amount of air remaining in the conducting zone and never reaches the alveoli, about 150 ml Functional capacity (VITAL CAPACITY= VT+IRV+ERV)- Air that actually reaches the respiratory zone, usually about 350 ml Gas Exchange and Partial Pressure What is a partial pressure? Each gas in a mixture contributes to a proportional pressure Gas works via diffusion. What is diffusion? Partial Pressure in the Pulmonary Circuit: ●

Oxygenated → PaO2= 95 mm Hg

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Deoxygenated → PaO2= 40 mm Hg PaCO2= 45 mm Hg

Partial Pressure in the Systemic Circuit: ●

Oxygenated→ PaO2= 95 mm Hg

PaCO2= 40 mm Hg

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Deoxygenated → PaO2=40 mm Hg PaCO2= 45 mm Hg

(For a Picture look at slide 46) How is O2 carried in blood? Plasma CO2 can be transported in three different ways. List them please. 1. Plasma 2. Red Blood Cells bound to Hb 3. Bicarbonate Ions If PaCO2 in the bronchioles is high, they dilate. Why? The muscles relax If PaO2 in lungs drop, what happens to the rate of diffusion? This helps maintain…

The respiratory center is the… Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers Depth and rate of respiration are under the control of the… Limbic Centers of the brain Dorsal Respiratory Group responsible for INSPIRATION. Ventral Respiratory Group responsible for EXPIRATION. A high PaCO2 will INCREASE Resp. Rate. A low pH will DECREASE Resp. Rate. COPD Includes bronchitis and emphysema. Main risk factor is… Hypoxic (low levels of O2) It leads to… Respiratory Acidosis Chapter 16 – Digestive System

Organs of the GI tract in order… 1. Mouth 2. Pharynx 3. Esophagus 4. Stomach 5. Small and Large Intestines 6. Rectum 7. Anus Accessory organs(6) 1. Teeth 2. Tongue 3. Salivary Glands 4. Gallbladder 5. Liver 6. Pancreas Three accessory organs in the mouth… 1. Teeth 2. Tongue 3. Salivary Glands Six functions of the Digestive System…. 1. Ingestion- Food enters mouth 2. Secretion- Release of water, acids, enzymes, and buffers in lumen of digestive tract 3. Mixing/Propulsion (aka “Mechanical processing”) -

Physical manipulation that enhances movement \

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Increases surface area for enzymes to work

4. Digestion- Chemical breakdown of food to absorbable size

5. Absorption- Movement of nutrient molecules, electrolytes, and water across digestive epithelium and into interstitial fluid of the body 6. Excretion- Elimination of waste products The four layers of the GI tract. 1. Mucosa 2. Submucosa 3. Muscularis Externa 4. Serosa Which one allows for peristalsis? The function of villi and microvilli primarily found in the small intestine is to… increase surface area Inner serous membrane covering the viscera is called… Visceral Peritoneum Outer serous membrane lining abdominal wall is called… Parietal Peritoneum Blood reaches the intestinal organs by way of the… Mesentery Peristalsis vs Segmentation? Peristalsis: Waves of contraction initiated by circular layer, followed by longitudinal, and propels material down tract Segmentation: A mixing action with no propulsion Two types of digestion… 1. Chemical Digestion 2. Mechanical Digestion Mouth Also called… The Oral Cavity The three salivary glands are… 1. Parotid 2. Submandibular

3. Sublingual Has papillae which contains… Taste buds Lingual lipase secreted to mechanically digest… Triglycerides Salivary glands secrete AMYLASE which starts the chemical digestion of carbs. The tongue is a muscle. TRUE The teeth allow for mastication which is also called… A BOLUS is formed in the mouth. Teeth Composed of three parts… 1. Crown- Exposed area, above the gum line 2. Root- covered in cementum which attaches tooth to periodontal membrane 3. Neck- Region in contact with gum Dentin is covered by ENAMEL, the visible white part of the teeth. Surrounding the teeth are…Gingivae (gums) How are teeth firmly kept in place? Periodontal Ligament Four types of teeth (2123)… 1. Incisors- chisel-shaped for cutting 2. Cuspids (aka Canines)- Fanglike, for tearing or piercing 3. Premolars- Bicuspids for grinding on flattened crown surface 4. Molars- For grinding, mashing on flattened crown surface Fancy term for throat is… Pharynx It is composed of skeletal muscle. Is that voluntary or involuntary control? Voluntary Connecting the pharynx to the stomach is a tube called… Esophagus The upper esophageal sphincter is mainly skeletal muscle. The lower esophageal sphincter is smooth muscle. Why? Allows for swallowing Bolus goes down the esophagus via…

The bolus after mixing with gastric secretions is called… Chyme Stomach The main job is… Temporari...