INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION in Contexts PDF

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS FIFTH EDITION Judith N. Martin Arizona State University Thomas K. Nakayama Northeastern University INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 12...

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS FIFTH EDITION

Judith N. Martin Arizona State University

Thomas K. Nakayama Northeastern University

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 0 9 ISBN: 978-0-07-338512-9 MHID: 0-07-338512-3 Vice president and editor-in-chief: Michael Ryan Publisher: Frank Mortimer Sponsoring editor: Katie Stevens Director of development: Dawn Groundwater Development editor: Craig Leonard Editorial coordinator: Erika Lake Marketing manager: Leslie Oberhuber Marketing Specialist: Rebecca Saidlower Senior production editor: Mel Valentín Production assistant: Rachel J. Castillo Production service: Matrix Productions Inc.

Design manager: Preston Thomas Designer: Allister Fein Cover designer: Allister Fein Photo researcher: Poyee Oster Media project manager: Thomas Brierly Production supervisor: Louis Swaim

The text was set in 10.5/12 Janson by Laserwords, and printed on acid-free 45# New Era Matte Plus by R.R. Donnelly & Sons. Cover image: © William Whitehurst /Corbis Because this page cannot legibly accommodate all acknowledgements for copyrighted material, credits appear at the end of the book, and constitute an extension of this copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Martin, Judith N. Intercultural communication in contexts / Judith Martin, Thomas Nakayama. — 5th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-338512-9 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-338512-3 (alk. paper) 1. Intercultural communication. I. Nakayama, Thomas K. II. Title. HM1211.M373 2010 303.48’2—dc22

2008051898

VVVVVV About the Authors

The two authors of this book come to intercultural communication from very different backgrounds and very different research traditions. Yet we believe that these differences offer a unique approach to thinking about intercultural communication. We briefly introduce ourselves here, but we hope that by the end of the book you will have a much more complete understanding of who we are. Judith Martin grew up in Mennonite communities, primarily in Delaware and Pennsylvania. She has studied at the Université de Grenoble in France and has taught in Algeria. She received her doctorate at the Pennsylvania State University. By background and training, she is a social scientist who has focused on intercultural communication on an interpersonal level and has studied how people’s communication is affected as they move or sojourn between international locations. She has taught at the State University of New York at Oswego, the University of Minnesota, the University of New Mexico, and Arizona State University. She enjoys gardening, going to Mexico, and hosting annual Academy Awards parties, and she does not miss the harsh Midwestern winters. Tom Nakayama grew up mainly in Georgia, at a time when the Asian American presence was much less than it is now. He has studied at the Université de Paris and various universities in the United States. He received his doctorate from the University of Iowa. By background and training, he is a critical rhetorician who views intercultural communication in a social context. He has taught at the California State University at San Bernardino and Arizona State University. He is now professor and chair of communication studies at Northeastern University in Boston. He lives near the Back Bay station and loves walking to work. He loves the change of seasons, especially autumn. The authors’ very different life stories and research programs came together at Arizona State University. We have each learned much about intercultural communication through our own experiences, as well as through our intellectual pursuits. Judith has a well-established record of social science approaches to intercultural communication. Tom, in contrast, has taken a nontraditional v

vi About the Authors

approach to understanding intercultural communication by emphasizing critical perspectives. We believe that these differences in our lives and in our research offer complementary ways of understanding intercultural communication. Since the early 1990s, we have engaged in many different dialogues about intercultural communication—focusing on our experiences, thoughts, ideas, and analyses—which led us to think about writing this textbook. But our interest was not primarily sparked by these dialogues; rather, it was our overall interest in improving intercultural relations that motivated us. We believe that communication is an important arena for improving those relations. By helping people become more aware as intercultural communicators, we hope to make this a better world for all of us.

VVVVVV Brief Contents

PART I

FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 1

Chapter

1

Why Study Intercultural Communication? 3

Chapter

2

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication 44

Chapter

3

Culture, Communication, Context, and Power 83

Chapter

4

History and Intercultural Communication 120

PART II

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION PROCESSES 159

Chapter

5

Identity and Intercultural Communication 161

Chapter

6

Language and Intercultural Communication 218

Chapter

7

Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space 265

PART III

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS 303

Chapter

8

Understanding Intercultural Transitions 305

Chapter

9

Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication 347

Chapter

10

Culture, Communication, and Intercultural Relationships 380

Chapter

11

Culture, Communication, and Conflict 425

Chapter

12

Striving for Engaged and Effective Intercultural Communication 464

vii

VVVVVV Contents

Preface xix To the Student

PART I

Chapter 1

xxvii

FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 1

Why Study Intercultural Communication? The Self-Awareness Imperative The Demographic Imperative

3

4 6

Changing U.S. Demographics 6 Changing Immigration Patterns 8

The Economic Imperative

17

The Technological Imperative 21 Technology and Human Communication 21 Access to Communication Technology 26 The Peace Imperative

28

The Ethical Imperative 32 Relativity Versus Universality 34 Being Ethical Students of Culture 35 Internet Resources Summary

38

39

Discussion Questions Activities

40

40

Key Words

41

References

41 ix

x

Contents

Chapter 2

The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication 44 The Early Development of the Discipline Nonverbal Communication Application of Theory

45

46

46

An Emphasis on International Settings An Interdisciplinary Focus

46

47

Perception and Worldview of the Researcher

49

Three Approaches to Studying Intercultural Communication 50 The Social Science Approach 54 The Interpretive Approach 59 The Critical Approach 65

A Dialectical Approach to Understanding Culture and Communication 71 Combining the Three Traditional Paradigms: The Dialectical Approach 71 Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication

73

Keeping a Dialectical Perspective 76 Internet Resources Summary

76

77

Discussion Questions Activities

Chapter 3

78

78

Key Words

79

References

79

Culture, Communication, Context, and Power 83 What Is Culture?

84

Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned, GroupRelated Perceptions 87 Interpretive Definitions: Culture as Contextual Symbolic Patterns of Meaning, Involving Emotions 87 Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic, and a Contested Zone 90

Contents xi

What Is Communication?

94

The Relationship Between Culture and Communication 95 How Culture Influences Communication 95 How Communication Reinforces Culture 107 Communication as Resistance to the Dominant Cultural System 109 The Relationship Between Communication and Context 109 The Relationship Between Communication and Power 110 Internet Resources Summary

116

116

Discussion Questions Activities

Chapter 4

117

117

Key Words

118

References

118

History and Intercultural Communication From History to Histories 122 Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories 123 Family Histories 124 National Histories 125 Cultural-Group Histories 126 History, Power, and Intercultural Communication 128 The Power of Texts 128 The Power of Other Histories 130 Power in Intercultural Interactions 133 History and Identity 133 Histories as Stories 133 Nonmainstream Histories 135 Intercultural Communication and History Antecedents of Contact 146

146

120

xii Contents

The Contact Hypothesis 149 Negotiating Histories Dialectically in Interaction Internet Resources Summary

153

154

Discussion Questions Activities

PART II

Chapter 5

152

155

156

Key Words

156

References

156

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION PROCESSES 159

Identity and Intercultural Communication 161 Thinking Dialectically About Identity The Social Science Perspective 163 The Interpretive Perspective 166 The Critical Perspective 167 Identity and Language

171

Identity Development Issues 172 Minority Identity Development 173 Majority Identity Development 177 Social and Cultural Identities Gender Identity 180 Sexual Identity 182 Age Identity 182 Racial and Ethnic Identities 184 Characteristics of Whiteness 187 Religious Identity 192 Class Identity 194 National Identity 197 Regional Identity 199

Personal Identity

199

Multicultural People

200

180

162

Contents xiii

Identity, Stereotypes, and Prejudice Identity and Communication Internet Resources Summary

Chapter 6

208

211

212

Discussion Questions Activities

205

212

213

Key Words

213

References

214

Language and Intercultural Communication 218 Social Science Perspective on Language Language and Perception 221 Recent Research Findings 224 Language and Thought: Metaphor

219

225

Cultural Variations in Communication Style 227

Interpretive Perspective on Language Variations in Contextual Rules 231 Critical Perspective on Language Co-Cultural Communication 234 Discourse and Social Structure 237 The “Power” Effects of Labels 238

233

Moving Between Languages 241 Multilingualism 241 Translation and Interpretation 243 Language and Identity 246 Language and Cultural Group Identity

247

Code Switching 249

Language Politics and Policies Language and Globalization Internet Resources Summary

260

260

Discussion Questions

261

251

254

228

xiv Contents

Activities

Chapter 7

262

Key Words

262

References

262

Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space

265

Thinking Dialectically About Nonverbal Communication: Defining Nonverbal Communication 267 Comparing Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 268 What Nonverbal Behavior Communicates 270 The Universality of Nonverbal Behavior

271

Recent Research Findings 271 Nonverbal Codes 273 Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination 281 Semiotics and Nonverbal Communication 285

Defining Cultural Space 287 Cultural Identity and Cultural Space 287 Changing Cultural Space 293 Postmodern Cultural Spaces 295 Internet Resources Summary

297

298

Discussion Questions Activities

PART III

Chapter 8

299

299

Key Words

300

References

300

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS 303

Understanding Intercultural Transitions Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural Transitions 307 Types of Migrant Groups Voluntary Migrants 310 Involuntary Migrants 311

309

305

Contents xv

Migrant-Host Relationships

314

Assimilation 314 Separation 315 Integration 316 Marginalization 318 Cultural Hybridity 318

Cultural Adaptation 320 Social Science Approach 320 Interpretive Approach 327 Critical Approach: Contextual Influences 336 Internet Resources Summary

342

343

Discussion Questions Activities

Chapter 9

343

343

Key Words

344

References

344

Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication 347 Learning About Cultures Without Personal Experience 348 The Power of Popular Culture 349 What Is Popular Culture? 350 Consuming and Resisting Popular Culture

354

Consuming Popular Culture 354 Resisting Popular Culture 356

Representing Cultural Groups 360 Migrants’ Perceptions of Mainstream Culture 362 Popular Culture and Stereotyping 363 U.S. Popular Culture and Power 367 Global Circulation of Images and Commodities Cultural Imperialism 370 Internet Resources Summary

375

376

Discussion Questions

376

367

xvi Contents

Activities

Chapter 10

376

Key Words

377

References

377

Culture, Communication, and Intercultural Relationships 380 Benefits and Challenges of Intercultural Relationships 382 Benefits 382 Challenges 384 Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural Relationships 388 Personal-Contextual Dialectic 389 Differences-Similarities Dialectic 390 Cultural-Individual Dialectic 391 Privilege-Disadvantage Dialectic 391 Static-Dynamic Dialectic 391 History/Past–Present /Future Dialectic 392 Intercultural Relationships 392 Social Science Approach: Cross-Cultural Differences 392 Interpretive Approach: Communicating in Intercultural Relationships 398 Critical Approach: Contextual Influences 413 Internet Resources Summary

418

418

Discussion Questions Activities

Chapter 11

419

420

Key Words

420

References

420

Culture, Communication, and Conflict Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict Two Orientations to Conflict Conflict as Opportunity 431

431

425 427

Contents xvii

Conflict as Destructive 433 Cultural Differences in Conflict Views: A Dialectical Perspective 435

The Social Science Approach to Conflict 436 Strategies and Tactics for Dealing with Conflict 436 Gender, Ethnicity, and Conflict 440 Value Differences and Conflict Styles 441 Interpretive and Critical Approaches to Social Conflict 443 Social Contexts 443 Economic Contexts 445 Historical and Political Contexts 446 Managing Intercultural Conflict 447 Productive Versus Destructive Conflict 447 Competition Versus Cooperation 448 Dealing with Conflict 450 Mediation 457 Internet Resources Summary

460

460

Discussion Questions Activities

Chapter 12

461

461

Key Words

462

References

462

Striving for Engaged and Effective Intercultural Communication 464 The Components of Competence 465 Social Science Perspective: Individual Components 465 Interpretive Perspective: Competence in Contexts 475 Critical Perspective: Competence for Whom? 477 Applying Knowledge About Intercultural Communication 478 Entering Into Dialogue 478 Becoming Interpersonal Allies 480

xviii Contents

Building Coalitions 482 Social Justice and Transformation Forgiveness 488

What the Future Holds

483

491

Internet Resources for Intercultural Interaction Summary

496

Discussion Questions Activities

497

Key Words

497

References

498

Credits C-1 Name Index I-1 Subject Index I-7

497

495

VVVVVV Preface

THE INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN A RAPIDLY CHANGING WORLD The falling value of the U.S. dollar against many other world currencies, the rising price of fuel, and the impact these changes have had on travel and business costs point to new international relationships. How will the expansion of globalization be affected? What kind of impact will there be on the exchange of products and movement of people around the world? How will economic changes influence where tourists come from and where they visit? Changes such as these are likely to influence the shape of intercultural communication. When we look back upon the international and intercultural situation at the time we first began writing this book, we recognize how rapidly the world has changed and how, as a result, these changes have raised even more pressing issues for intercultural communication scholars and practitioners. As the U.S. dollar remains weak, foreign businesses may find buying opportunities in the United States, such as the recent acquisition of Anheuser-Busch by a Belgian company. U.S. tourists may find it expensive to travel to many locations overseas, but tourists from those places may find it much cheaper to come to the United States. Natural disasters such as the typhoon in Myanmar and earthquakes in China, as well as the ongoing conflict in Darfur, have summoned a variety of positive responses, including tremendous caring and compassion across intercultural and international divides, but these tragedies also exacerbated enduring social group inequities. Regional identities continue to challenge national identities, such as is the case in Belgium, which appears closer than ever to dissolution along the lines of linguistic identities. In addition, the Internet and cell phones have made intercult...