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Intro to Psychology notes
Dr. Stephen Drigotas...

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Intro Psych 

Dr. Stephen Drigotas

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Room 138 Ames Hall OH 10-10:40 MW (or by apt)

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[email protected]

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09/04/2013

Scientific Methods of Psychology

09/04/2013

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Theory vs. Phenomenon  Theory: showing why something occurs  Phenomenon: showing that something occurs

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Theory Development:  Inductive: specific to general (e.g. attachment)  Deductive: general to specific (e.g., ego depletion: people will work longer on difficult tasks if they started with easier tasks; after

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getting worn down cognitively, people quit more easily and give into temptation more easily) Theory Evaluation  Testable/falsifiable  Fits data 

Parsimony (Occam’s razor)- simple theoretical explanation is

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preferred over a more complex theoretical explanation  Generates research Pettybaker study: people who write about trauma are healthier than

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those writing about everyday events Bowlby 44 Juvenile Thieves The longer you wait at the DMC, the more likely you’ll snap

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Hard anagrams quit quickly, easy anagrams work their way up to hard

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ones Steps of research:  Formulate Theory  Design Study  

Collect Data Analyze Data

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Disseminate results

Background Issues for Research Methods 1. Design Experimental:  Manipulated (independent variable)

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Measured (dependent variable) Random assignment key- need a component of change

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Control key- everything is the same except for independent variable Standardization- experiment is the same for each subject (i.e.

written script) Correlational:  Relation between variables (-1 to +1)  No manipulated variable; just measured  No causation

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2. Validity Internal validity: degree to which you are sure that the independent

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variable caused the results in your study Higher when talking about experimental methods

 External validity: degree to which behavior in a study is naturally occurring  Increase by using deception  

3. Measurement Issues:

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operationalization: for reliability, that you’re manipulating what you want

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to be manipulating (watch out for third variable) manipulation checks: making sure you’re only measuring/manipulating

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the one variable you’re trying to influence reliability Types of Research Methods Laboratory:  controlled environment  independent variable manipulated  high in internal validity, weaker in external validity (deception will 

increase ext validity) discussions on causation

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Observational  Real world setting; no manipulation  High external validity, low internal validity  Phenomenological research no test of “why”  Coding is key

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Field Experiment  Subjects don’t know they’re in a study  Trying to manipulate the subject (can be difficult—you cant control

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everything) Ex: parking meter-> figure of authority leads more people to put

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quarter in meter Trying to have high internal and external validity

Surveys  Large number of subjects  good generalizability  Many responses in a short time period  Low accuracy  people lie, people don’t always know the answer Experience Sampling  Asking participants to record their own experiences for a period of  

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time (diaries/journals) More specific to social psychology than other fields of research Cons: self reporting = subject to bias, accuracy of the data

susceptible to laziness, etc Simulation  Taking on a role and acting the way one should act, stereotypes  Ex: Zimbardo Stanford Prison Study Archival  Data collected for some other reason and then used to test a 

hypothesis Ex: majority opinions were more confident, extreme, arrogant; minority opinions were more wishy-washy, psychologist taking NBA’s basketball data to determine whether “hot hand” is an actual

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phenomenon Quasi-experimental  Independent variable is naturally occurring (because it is unethical or you are unable to manipulate the ind variable)

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Ex: cancer patients vs. healthy patients, gender,

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Multi-trait= multi-method If you can demonstrate something with more methods, it is more likely to

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be true Convergence

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Represented by use of creative operationalizations

Potential Biases  Design Problems  Demand Characteristics: participants figure out what the hypothesis is 

and behaves differently Experimenter Bias: the person interacting with the subject may alter

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behavior to evoke a response from participant Avoid by using double blind experiment if possible or by using

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standardization Participant Bias Evaluation Apprehension: participant changes behavior because they don’t want to look bad

Ethics:  Milgram Study – turning point of research ethics  Institutional Review Board (IRB)  Informed consent (voluntary)  Risk vs. benefits 

Debriefing

Biological Foundation

09/04/2013

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23 pairs of chromosomes in body (except for reproductive; they only

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have half) Mitosis: cell division

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Meiosis: DNA replication Mutations that occur in meiosis have drastic affects on survival (usually

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harmful) IQ strongly genetically predisposed (twins score similarly as same person taking the test twice)  But environment also plays a substantial impact (fraternal twins

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and siblings have same degree of relatedness but different IQ correlations) Gregor Mendel

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Dominant vs recessive

Interaction with the Environment 1. Genotype vs. Phenotype  Genotype: genes  Phenotype: expressed 2. Evolution: mutation in mitosis and meiosis  Principle of natural selection  Survival and reproduction  3. Sociobiology: study of evolution’s effect on humans  Differential Parental Investment o Females more invested in offspring because can have fewer  

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and are genetically certain Mate preferences o Female value resources, men value attractiveness Jealousy o Men more concerned about partner having sex with others, women more concerned about partner falling in love with other Denigration Mate poaching

The Brain 

09/04/2013...