Intro To Psych Final Exam PDF

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PSYCHOLOGY 1001: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Study Guide Exam, Dr. Heimberg Spring 2017 Define and where appropriate give examples of each of the terms below: Chapter 14: Personality Personality: enduring patterns of thought, feeling, motivation and behavior that are expressed in different circumstances Twin and adoption studies: used to separate genetic and environmental factors Shared and nonshared environmental influences: ● Nonshared environmental: siblings unique experiences ● Shared environmental: what siblings have in common Psychodynamic/ psychoanalytic theory ● Psychic determinism: the assumption that all psychological events have a cause ● Symbolic meaning: no action is meaningless ● Unconscious motivation: we rarely understand why we do what we do Behavioral learning theory ● Differences in our personalities stem largely from our learning histories ● Personalities are the sum of habits acquired by classical and operant conditioning ● Personality is under the control of genetic factors & reinforcement contingencies Social Learning Theory ● Emphasizes learned aspects of personality and the person’s expectations and beliefs ● Response tendencies are shaped by specific situations and contexts, reinforcement history, meaning and interpretation of events and situations & expectancies and competencies Humanistic theory (Maslow) ● Emphasis on the basic goodness of people, positive nature of humanity ● Focus on strivings for fulfillment and self improvement and on the capacity for positive contributions to society ● This nature is delicate and can be overcome by habits & cultural pressure ● Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ○ Self-actualization: morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts ○ Esteem: self esteem, confidence, achievement ○ Love/Belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy ○ Safety: security of body, employment, resources, morality, family, health property ○ Physiological: breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion

Trait theory ● Traits: emotional, cognitive, and behavioral tendencies as well as the underlying dimensions that form personality ● Hans Eysenck’s Type Theory ○ Extroversion vs Introversion ○ Neuroticism ■ Continuum from emotional stability to instability (anxiety, tension, guilty, moodiness) ○ Psychoticism ■ Degree to which one is vulnerable to psychoses, or loss of touch with reality ■ Tendency to be aggressive, egocentric, impulsive, and antisocial Sigmund Freud ● Practicing neurologist ● Seeing patients with hysterical symptoms ● Theory shaped by his observations of these particular problems ● Interested in failure of conscious determination to govern behavior ● Freud invoked a role of unconscious processes in the control of behavior ● Topographical model: argued for 3 levels of consciousness ○ Unconscious : repressed thoughts and feelings; NOT avail to conscious mind; primary process thinking ○ Preconscious: memories that can be accessed easily ○ Conscious mind: thoughts a person is currently aware of, secondary process thinking Id ● Unconscious mind ● Reservoir of sexual and aggressive energy ● Primary process thinking (pleasure principle) Ego ● Unconscious, preconscious, conscious ● Attempts to balance desire, morality and reality Superego ● Unconscious, preconscious, conscious ● Internalized standards and ideals of culture Defense mechanisms ● Unconscious mental processes that protect the conscious person from anxiety ● Repression ○ Anxiety evoking thoughts are kept from consciousness ● Denial ○ Person refuses to recognize reality, motivated forgetting of distressing experiences ● Projection ○ Person attributes his/her own unacceptable impulses/qualities to others ● Reaction formation

○ Person converts an unacceptable impulse into the opposite impulse Sublimation ○ Person converts an unacceptable impulse into a socially acceptable activity ● Rationalization ○ Person explains away their actions to reduce anxiety Psychosexual stages: ● Oral ○ 0-18 months ○ Dependency ● Anal ○ 18 months-3 yrs ○ Orderliness, cleanliness ● Phallic ○ 3 yrs - 6yrs ○ Parental identification, oedipal complex, penis envy, castration complex ● Latency ○ 6-12 yrs ○ Sublimation of sexual and aggressive urges ● Genital ○ 12+ yrs ○ Renewed sexual impulses; mature romantic relationships Oedipus complex ● Freud believed that the Oedipus complex was "...one of the most powerfully determinative elements in the growth of the child"; Occurs between a child's 3rd and 6th year ● •Freud argued that both boys and girls wish to possess their mothers, but as they grow older"they begin to sense that their claim to exclusive attention is thwarted by their mother's attention to their father" •children connect this conflict of attention to the intimate relations between mothers and fathers, relations from which the children are excluded. ● Child becomes sexually attracted to the parent of the opposite gender Carl Jung: collective unconscious, archetypes ● Collective unconscious ○ Memories have passed down across generations ● Acrhetypes ○ Cross-culturally universal symbols Alfred Adler ● Inferiority complex ○ Experienced by \ who are either pampered or neglected by their parents Karen Horney ● First major feminist personality theorist ● Argued against gender biased freudian concepts ● Argued that women’s sense of inferiority was not based on anatomy B.F. Skinner ●

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Object Relations Theory ○ Enduring patterns of behavior in intimate relationships ○ Motivational, cognitive, affective processes that produce the pattern Albert Bandura (Social Learning Theory) ● Self-efficacy expectancies ○ Beliefs about one’s abilities to perform a specific action Abraham Maslow ● Criticized psychology for studying pathology, weakness and abnormality ● Theory built on study of well-adjusted individuals ● Emphasis on universal strivings to reach fullest human potential Self-actualization ● Morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts ● Prone to peak experiences: transcendent moments of intense excitement and tranquility marked by a profound sense of connection to the world Hierarchy of needs ● Self-actualization, esteem, love/belonging, safety, physiological Carl Rogers (Person-Centered approach) ● Believed that humans are good by nature ● Emphasized the notion of self ● Each person has multiple selves ○ True-self: the core aspect of being ○ Ideal-self: what the person would like to be ○ False-self: the self that is created by distortions from conditions of worth ● Discrepancies between ideal and true self lead to distortions of reality (Incongruence) ● Incongruence can be remedied by creating an environment of ○ Warmth, empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard Conditions of worth ● Conditions under which an incongruent person will experience positive regard. Unconditional positive regard ● Positive regard that is not contingent on any specific behaviors. It promotes actualization. Traits ● Emotional, cognitive, and behavioral tendencies as well as the underlying dimensions that form personality Hans Eysenck’s Type Theory ● Extroversion vs Introversion ● Neuroticism ○ Continuum from emotional stability to instability ● Psychoticism ○ Degree to which one is vulnerable to psychoses, or loss of touch with reality ○ Tendency to be aggressive, egocentric, impulsive and antisocial Five factor model of personality ● Openness to experience

○ Emotionally open, flexible, active fantasy life, artistic Conscientiousness ○ Self-disciplined, deliberate, achievement striving ● Extroversion ○ warm gregarious, active, excitement, seeking ● Agreeableness ○ Straightforward, trusting, modest, tender, altruistic ● Neuroticism ○ Anxious, depressed, vulnerable, self-conscious Projective tests ● Assume that persons presented with a vague stimulus will project their own impulses and desires into a description of the stimulus ○ Rorschach Inkblot Test: ambiguous shapes intended to force participants to project meaning ○ Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): participants create stories describing ambiguous black and white drawings ○ Questions of adequate test-retest and interrater reliability ○ Question of incremental validity Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 ● Useful in assessing abnormal personality characteristics ● Validity scales to account for socially desirable responding, defensiveness or malingering ●

Chapter 12: Stress, Coping, & Health Stress/stressor ● The tension, discomfort, or physical symptoms that arise when a stressor strains our ability to cope effectively Trauma/traumatic event ● A stressor so severe that it can produce long-term psychological/health consequences Stress hormones/corticosteroids ● Stress hormone that activates the body and prepares us to respond to stressful circumstances Primary and secondary appraisals ● Primary: is the event potentially harmful? ● Secondary: do i have the necessary resources or ability to deal with it? Problem-focused coping ● Person attempts to change the situation ○ Try to remove the stressor Emotion-focused coping ● Person attempts to adapt to the situation ○ Alter emotions by exercise or drug use Major life events ● More events over the past year

○ More psychological problems ○ More physical problems ● Sometimes difficult to tell if an event is cause or consequence of people’s problems Daily hassles ● Minor annoyance that strain our ability to cope ● Better prediction of physical health, depression, and anxiety than major life events General adaptation syndrome ● Stress responses are organized in stages ○ Alarm ■ Release of adrenaline, activation of the autonomic nervous system, physical symptoms of anxiety ● Fight-or-flight response ○ Resistance ■ Adapting to or coping with stressors ● All systems return to normal ○ Exhaustion ■ If stress is prolonged, system begins to fail ● Damage to organ systems ● Chronic depression Tend-and-befriend response ● Women tend to nurture (tend) or seek social support (befriend) when faced with a potentially dangerous situation Posttraumatic stress disorder ● Results From long lasting stress reactions Social support ● Two way communication in which a person can confide his/her concerns and receive support from others ● Emotion-focused coping ● Instrumental support Expressive writing ● Pennebaker et al (1988) study of college students ● Write for 20 minutes on 4 consecutive days about deepest thoughts and feelings about past trauma, & superficial topics ● After 6 weeks had passed, students in first group had fewer visits to the health center ad improved immune functioning ● Replicated many times ● but is it always good to let your feelings out? Catharsis ● The act of disclosing painful feelings Crisis debriefing ● Common for crisis debriefing to be set up after a community trauma ○ School shooting, fire, suicide of young person ● Typically conducted in groups in a single 3-4 hour session ● Often within 1-2 days of event

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Great pressure may be put on participants to express their feelings about and process the event ● Research suggests that it does not work and may actually increase participant’s risk for developing PTSD Rumination ● the tendency to repetitively think about the causes, situational factors, and consequences of one's negative emotional experience Chapter 15: Psychological Disorders Psychopathology ● Refers to problematic patterns of thought, feeling and behavior that results in disrupted functioning at home, work and social life and distress in the person or in others Deviance ● Statistical rarity ● Violation of social norms Distress ● Pain Dysfunction ● Interference with adaptive functioning Danger Labeling theory ● Argues that diagnosis is a way of stigmatizing people who we consider deviant Descriptive diagnosis ● The current diagnostic system assumes that we can distinguish normal from abnormal ● Abnormality is reflected in discrete signs and systems Signs ● Observable phenomena (temperature) Symptoms ● Reports from patients (headache) Syndromes ● Signs and symptoms that fell into discrete clusters Etiology ● Syndromes discrete causes Medical model ● assumption that abnormal behavior is the result of physical problems and should be treated medically. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) ● Published by the APA ○ Attempts to classify signs and symptoms into syndromes ○ Over 300 diagnostic categories ○ Categorical vs dimensional ○ Descriptive approach-atheoretical ○ The problem of comorbidity

Prevalence ● a statistical concept referring to the number of cases of a disease that are present in a particular population at a given time Comorbidity ● refers to the presence of more than one diagnosis occurring in an individual at the same time Anxiety disorders ● Refers to feelings of distress, uneasiness or apprehension ○ Interfere with a person’s ability to function ○ Cause extreme distress Components of the anxiety response: ● Physiological ○ Intense, frequent, often overwhelming feelings of anxiety out of proportion to situation ● Cognitive ○ Repetitive thoughts of threat or misfortune ○ worry , apprehensive expectation ● Behavioral ○ Strong desire to escape or avoid Specific phobia ● Marked fear of anxiety about a specific object or situation Social anxiety disorder ● Marked fear or anxiety about one or more social situations in which the person is exposed to possible scrutiny by others Panic attack/Panic disorder ● Recurrent unexpected panic attacks…followed by persistent concern or worry about additional attacks or their consequences or a significant maladaptive change in behavior related to the attacks Agoraphobia ● Marked fear of situations (e.g., using public transportation, being in open spaces, being in enclosed places, standing in line or being in a crowd, being outside of the home alone) from which escape may be difficult or help may be unavailable. Generalized anxiety disorder ● Excessive anxiety and worry, occurring more days than not for at least 6 months about a number of events or activities Obsessive-compulsive disorder ● An obsession is a recurrent persistent thought, urge, or image that is experienced as intrusive or unwanted and causes marked anxiety or distress “Did I lock the door?” “Is that object contaminated?” Major depressive episode/Major depressive disorder ● Major Depressive Episode is a period of intense sadness or loss of interest in usual activities ● A history of major depressive episode(s) in the absence of a manic episode is referred to

as Major Depressive Disorder Anhedonia ● Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities for all or most of the day Serotonin ● Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating and aggression ● Abnormal levels may contribute to depression and OCD ● Prozac and similar anti-depressant drugs affect these circuits Persistent depressive disorder ● A less severe, more chronic type of depression ● Symptoms are evident over longer time ○ At least 2 years ○ Periods of normal mood cannot be longer than two months ● Symptoms are ○ Poor appetite/overeating ○ insomnia/hypersomnia ○ Low energy ○ Low self esteem ○ Feelings of hopelessness Learned helplessness (Seligman) ● Internal, global, stable attributions for the outcomes of negative events Beck’s cognitive triad ● Negative view of the world, self and the future Bipolar disorder ● involves alternating episodes of mania and major depression ● At least 1 manic episode is required for diagnosis ● Lifetime risk is low (0.5-1.6%) ● No differences in prevalence rate between men and women ●  High genetic load ● 15-20% develop psychotic symptoms (hallucinations and delusions) ● 10-20% commit suicide Manic episode ● Symptoms: A distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive or irritable mood & abnormally and persistently increased goal directed activity/energy Suicide Personality disorders ● A chronic and severe disorder that substantially inhibits the capacity to love and to work. Dissociative Disorders ● Disorders characterised by disruptions in consciousness, memory, sense of identity or perception of the environment. Schizophrenia ● Psychotic disorders characterised by disturbances in thought, perception, behaviour, language, communication and emotion. Delusions ● A false belief firmly held despite evidence to the contrary.

Hallucinations ● Sensory perceptions that distort, or occur without, an external stimulus. Catatonia ● Unusual behavior in schizophrenia Dopamine hypothesis ● Schizophrenia reflects abnormalities in dopamine receptors in the brain Diathesis-stress model ● Proposes that some persons develop schizophrenia because of an underlying vulnerability that is compounded by stress Expressed emotion ● The tendency of family interactions to be characterised by criticism, hostile interchanges and emotional overinvolvement or intrusiveness by family members, implicated in the etiology and maintenance of schizophrenia and other disorder. Autism spectrum disorder ● a disorder of the brain that affects a person's ability to communicate, to take others' perspectives, and to interact effectively with others Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ● A disorder characterised by age-inappropriate inattention, impulsiveness and hyperactivity. Chapter 16: Treatment of Psychological Disorders Psychotherapy ● generic name given to formal psychological treatment ● Over 400 different approaches ● 4 major psychotherapies: Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Cognitive, Humanistic/existential Psychoanalysis ● Created by freud ● Long term treatment ○ Several years, several times a week ○ Clients should make no important life decisions because treatment is not completed ● Client reclines on couch ○ Therapists sits behind client, out of sight ○ Therapist largely inactive Psychodynamic Therapy ● A modern variant of psychoanalysis ● 1-2 years, several times a week ● Most commonly practiced form of psychotherapy in mental health centers today Insight ● The person's development of a conscious understanding of his/her unconscious conflicts and use of defense mechanisms Therapeutic alliance ● Relationship between patient and therapists Free association

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A technique in which the patient is encouraged to say whatever comes to mind to expose unconscious content Interpretation ● Therapist interprets the thoughts and feelings of the patient, revealing the patient’s hidden conflicts and motivation Dream analysis ● Patients’ dreams may express unconscious themes that influence their waking lives therapist interprets dreams’ symbolic significance Resistance ● As patients get closer to awareness of unconscious conflicts, they will resist(or attempt to avoid confrontation with feared material). Therapist attempts to bring these behaviors into evidence Transference ● Patients bring into therapy their past troubled relationships; these are transferred onto the therapist Working through ● Problematic behavior patterns have been become ingrained in all aspects of the patient’s life, and each of these must be examined Humanistic therapy ● Therapy that emphasizing the tendency toward healthy growth within each individual. ● Roger’s person-centered therapy ● Necessary conditions for growth ○ Empathy, genuineness, non possessive warmth, unconditional positive regard Cognitive-behavioral therapy ● Focus on the current thoughts and behaviors of a person ○ Emphasis is on the present ○ Tends to be short term ● One focus is on a detailed behavioral analysis of the problem behavior and the stimuli associated with it ● A second focus is on an analysis of the thoughts and beliefs the person has about himself, the world and the future Exposure/ritual prevention ● Patients are exposed to the stimuli that they fear ○ Bodily sensations ○ Social interactions ○ Contaminated objects and ritual prevention Ellis’s rational emotive behavior therapy ● Focuses on the thought patterns of the patient ● Suggests that psychopathology results when persons adopt illogic in response to life situations ● Therapist notes illogical and self defeating thoughts and teaches alternative thinking that promotes rational thought ● A=activating condition, B= (dysfunctional) belief system, C=consequences ○ A>B>C

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