Intro psych learning objective questions PDF

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Psychology Is a Science: LOQ: How is psychology a science & why is it the “rat is always right” ANSWER: Psychology’s findings, based on an empirical approach, are the result of careful observation and testing. Sifting sense from nonsense requires a scientific attitude. The “rat” (as in a psychologists maze as an ex) is always right because the facts are the facts, even when we find them surprising Empirical approach: Evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation. ● Magician James Randi used this when testing those claiming to see glowing auras around people’s bodies Scientific attitude: Curiosity + skepticism + humility= what matters is not my opinion or yours, but the truths revealed by our questioning and testing. Humble attitude was expressed in the motto “The rat is always right” (people and other animals don’t always behave as our ideas and beliefs would predict) Critical Thinking: LOQ: How does critical thinking feed a scientific attitude, and smarter thinking for everyday life? ANSWER: Critical thinking puts ideas to the test by examining assumptions, appraising the source, discerning hidden biases, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusions Critical thinking: Thinking that examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions (rather than blindly accepting arguments and conclusions). Critical thinkers are aware of preconceptions and assumptions and engage in reflective thinking. They always consider alternative explanations for research findings - The process of weighing, synthesizing, and evaluating evidence LOQ: What are the 3 key elements of the scientific attitude, and how do they support scientific inquiry? ANSWER: The scientific attitude equips us to be curious, sceptical, and humble in examining competing ideas or our own observations. Curiosity triggers new ideas, skepticism encourages attention to the facts, and humility helps us discard predictions that can’t be verified by research. Together, they make modern science possible Psychological Science Is Born: LOQ: What are some important milestones in psychology’s early development? ANSWER: Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological lab in 1879 in Germany. 2 early schools of thought in psychology were structuralism and functionalism Contemporary Psychology:

LOQ: How has contemporary psychology focused on cognition, on biology and experience, on culture and gender, and on human flourishing? ANSWER: Cognitive revolution (1960s) led psychology back to early interest in the mind. Growing understanding of biology and experience has fed psychology’s debate (nature-nurture) which centres on the relative contributions of genes and experience and their interaction in specific environments. Charles Darwin’s view that natural selection shapes behaviors and bodies led to evolutionary psychology’s study of or similarities because of our common biology and evolutionary history, and behavior genetics’ focus on the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. Cross-cultural/gender studies have diversified psychology’s assumptions and reminding us of our similarities. Attitudes/behaviors may vary somewhat by gender or across cultures, but shared human kinship, the underlying processes and principles are more similar. Positivists psychology’s call for more research on human flourishing and its attempt to discover and promote traits that help people to thrive Psychology’s 3 Main Levels of Analysis: LOQ:What are psychology’s levels of analysis and related perspectives? ANSWER: Biopsychosocial approach integrates information from 3 levels on analysis: biological, psychological, and social-cultural. More of a complete understanding rather than only one perspective Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions: LOQ: How does our everyday thinking sometimes lead us to a wrong conclusion? ANSWER: Everyday thinking can lead us astray because of 3 phenomenon. Hindsight bias is the “I knew-it-all-along”. Overconfidence is the result of our readiness to be more confident than correct. These tendencies along with eagerness to perceive patterns in random events, lead us to overestimate common sense thinking. Although limited by the testable questions it can address, scientific inquiry can help us overcome such biases and shortcomings LOQ: How do psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why is random sampling important? ANSWER: Descriptive methods, include case studies, naturalistic observations and surveys show us what can happen and they a offer ideas for further study. The best bias for generalizing about a population is a representative sample; in a random sample, every person in the entire population being tidied has an equal chance of participating. Descriptive methods describe but do not explain behaviour; they cannot show cause and effect because researchers cannot control variables LOQ: How do theories advance psychological science? ANSWER: Psychological theories apply an inter greater set of principles to organize observations and to generate hypothesis. By testing their hypotheses, researchers can confirm, reject, or revise their theories. To enable other researchers to replicate the studies, researchers

report them using precise operational definitions of their procedures and concepts. If others achieve similar results, confidence in the conclusions will be greater LOQ: How do psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why is random sampling important? ANSWER: Descriptive methods, include case studies, naturalistic observations and surveys show us what can happen and they a offer ideas for further study. The best bias for generalizing about a population is a representative sample; in a random sample, every person in the entire population being tidied has an equal chance of participating. Descriptive methods describe but do not explain behaviour; they cannot show cause and effect because researchers cannot control variables LOQ: What does it mean when we say 2 things are correlated, and what are positive and negative correlations? ANSWER: Correlation is the degree to which 2 variables are related and how well one predicts the other. Positive correlation: 2 variables increase or decrease together. Negative correlation: 1 variable increases as the other decreases. Strength/direction of their relationship is expressed as a correlation coefficient: +1.00 (perfect correlation) though 0 (no correlation) to -1.00 (perfect negative correlation). The relationship may be displayed in a scatter plot, each dot represents a value for the two variables LOQ: What are the illusory correlations, and what is regression towards the mean? ANSWER: Illusory correlations are random events that we notice and falsely assume are related. Regression towards the mean is the tendency for extreme/unusual scores to fall back (regress) towards their average LOQ: Why do correlations enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation? ANSWER: Correlations enable predictions because they show how 2 factors are related— positively or negatively. A correlation can indicate the possibility of cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove the direction of the influence, or whether an underlying 3rd factor may explain the correlation Experimentation: LOQ: What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect? ANSWER: To discover cause-effect relationships, psychologists conduct experiments, manipulating 1+ variables of interest and controlling other variables. Using random assignment, can minimize confounding variables like predicting differences between the experimental group (exposed to treatment) and control group (not even treatment). The independent variable is the factor the experimenter manipulates to study its effect; dependent variable is the factor the experimenter measures to discover any changes occurring in response to the manipulation of the

independent variable. Studies may use a double-blind procedure to avoid placebo effect and researcher bias LOQ: How would you know which research design to use? ANSWER: Psychological scientists design studies and choose research methods that will provide meaningful results. Researchers generate testable questions then carefully consider the best design to use in studying those questions (experimental, correlational, case study, naturalistic observation, twin study, longitudinal, or cross-sectional). Psychologists measure the variables they are studying, then interpret their results, keeping possible confounding variables in mind LOQ: How can simplified laboratory conditions illuminate everyday life? ANSWER: Researchers intentionally create a controlled/artificial environment in the lab to test general theoretical principles. It is the general principles— not specific findings— that help explain everyday behaviors LOQ: Why do psychologists study animals, and what ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants? How do psychologists’ values influence psychology? ANSWER: Some psychologists are interested in animal behavior, others want to understand psychological/psychological processes shared by humans and other specifies. Government agencies established standards for animal care/housing. Professional association/funding agencies have guidelines for protecting animals’ well-being. The APA ethics code outlines standards for safeguarding human participants well-being, including obtaining their informed consent and debriefing them later. Psychologists’ values influence their choice of research topics, theories/observations, their labels for behavior, and their professional advice. Applications of psychology’s principles have been used mainly in the service of humanity LOQ: How do we describe data using 3 measures of central tendency, and what is the relative usefulness of the 2 measures of variation? ANSWER: A measure of central tendency is a single score that represents a whole set of scares. 3 measures that we use to describe data are the mode (most frequently occurring score), mean (the arithmetic average), and median (the middle score in a group of data). They summarize data; measures of variation tell us how diverse data are. 2 measures of variation are the range (describes the gap between the highest and lowest scores) and the standard deviation (states how much scores vary around the mean or average score). Scores often form a normal (or bell-shaped) curve LOQ: Why are psychologists concerned with human biology? ANSWER: Psychologists working from a biological perspective study the links between biology and behaviour. We are biopsychosocial systems in which the factors interact to influence behaviour

LOQ: How do biology and experimented interact? ANSWER: Plasticity enables brain to adjust to new experiences, thereby being sculpted by both genes and life. A lifelong ability, but plasticity is greatest in childhood. With practice, our brain develops unique patterns and reflect our life experiences LOQ: What are neurons, and how do they transmit information? ANSWER: Neurons are the elementary components of the nervous system, the body’s speedy electrochemical information system. A neuron, consisting of a cell body and branching fibres, receives signals through its bushy, branching dendrites and sends signals through its axons. Some axons are encased in a myelin sheath, which enables faster transmission. Glial cells support, nourish, and protect neurons and also play a role in learning, thinking and memory. If combined signals received by a neuron exceed max threshold, the neuron fires, transmitting an electrical impulse (the action potential) down its axon by a chemistry-to-electricity process. The neuron's reaction is an all-or-none process LOQ: How do nerve cells communicate with other nerve cells? ANSWER: When action potentials reach the end of an axon (the axon terminals), they stimulate the release of neurotransmitters. These chemical messengers carry a message from the sending neuron across a synapse to receptor sites on a receiving neuron. The neuron, in a process called reuptake, normally reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitter molecules in the synaptic gap. If incoming signals are strong enough, the receiving neuron generates its own action potential and relays the message to other cells LOQ: How do neurotransmitters influence behavior, and how do drugs and other chemicals affect neurotransmission? ANSWER: Neurotransmitters travel pathways in the brain and may influence specific behaviors/emotions. Acetylcholine enables muscle action, learning, and memory. Endorphins are natural opiates related in response to pain/exercise. Drugs and other chemicals affect brain chemistry at synapses. Agonists increase a neurotransmitter’s action, and may do so in various ways. Antagonists decrease a neurotransmitter’s action by blocking production/release LOQ: What are the functions of the nervous system’s main divisions, and what are the 3 main types of neurons? ANSWER: -The central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord/nervous systems decision maker -The peripheral nervous system(PNS): connects the CNS to rest of the body by nerves, gathering info and transmits CNS decisions to rest of body -2 main PNS divisions are somatic nervous system (enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles) and autonomic nervous system (controls involuntary muscles and glands by its sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions) -3 types of neurons:

1) Sensory neurons (carry incoming info from body’s tissues + sensory receptors to brain and spinal cord 2) Motor neurons (carry outgoing information from the brain + spinal cord to muscles + glands 3) Interneurons (communicate within the brain and spinal cord and process info between sensory inputs and motor outputs) LOQ: How does the endocrine system transmit information and interact with the nervous system? ANSWER: It secretes hormones into bloodstream, travelling through the body and affect other tissues including the brain. The system’s master gland, the pituitary, influences hormone release by other glands including adrenal glands. An intricate feedback system, brain's hypothalamus influences the pituitary gland which influences other glands which release hormones which in turn influence the brain LOQ: How do neuroscientists study the brain’s connections to behavior and mind? ANSWER: Clinical observations and lesioning reveal the general effects of brain damage. Electrical, chemical, or magnetic stimulation can also reveal aspects of information processing in the brain. MRI scans show anatomy. EEG, MEG, PET, and FMRI recording reveal brain functions LOQ: What structures make up the brainstem, what are the functions of the brain stem, thalamus, reticular formation, and cerebellum? ANSWER: The brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. Its components are the medulla (controls heartbeat + breathing), the pons (which helps coordinate movements + controls sleep), and reticular formation (filters incoming stimuli, relays info to other brain areas, and affects arousal). The thalamus, above brainstem, acts as brain’s sensory control center. The cerebellum, attached to rear of brainstem, coordinates muscle movement + balance + enables nonverbal learning and memory LOQ: What are the limbic system’s structures and functions? ANSWER: Limbic system is linked to emotions memory and drives. Neural centres influxes: amygdala (responses of aggression and fear), hypothalamus (directs various bodily maintenance functions. Helps govern endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward), and hippocampus (helps process explicit conscious memories). The hypothalamus controls the pituitary (matergland) by stimulating it to trigger the release of hormones LOQ: What four lobes make up the cerebral cortex, and what are the functions of the motor cortex, somatosensory correct, and association areas? ANSWER:

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Cerebral cortex as 2 hemispheres. Each hemisphere has 4 lobes: frontal,, parietal, occipital, and temporal Motor cortex: rear of frontal lobes, controls voluntary movements Somatosensory cortex: front of parietal lobes, registers + processes body touch + movement sensations Precise control= motor cortex Sensitive= somatosensory cortex 4 lobes devoted to uncommitted association areas which integrate info involved in higher mental functions like learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking Mental experiences arise from coordinated brain activity

LOQ: Do we really use only 10% of our brain? ANSWER: Vast areas of the brain are responsible for interpreting, integrating and acting on sensory info + linking it with stored memories. Evidence from brain damage show that neurons in association areas are busy with higher mental functions; a bullet would not land in an “unused” area Responses to Damage LOQ: To what extent can a damaged brain recognize itself, and what is neurogenesis? ANSWER: Damaged brain may demonstrate plasticity, especially in young children, as new pathways are built and functions migrate to other brain regions. Reassignment of functions to different areas of the brain may also occur in blindness + deafness, or as result of a age and disease. Brain sometimes mends itself by forming new neurons, a process known as neurogenesis The Divided Brain: LOQ: What do split brains reveal about the function of our 2 brain hemispheres? ANSWER: Split brain research (experiments on people with a severed corpus callousness) has confirmed that in most people, the left-Hemisphere is the most verbal. Right hemisphere excels in visual perception, perceiving emotion, and making inferences, helps us modulate our speech + orchestrate our self-awareness. Each hemisphere makes unique contributions to the integrated functioning of the brain LOQ: What are chromosomes, DNA, genes, and the human genome? How do behavior geneticists explain our individual differences? ANSWER: - Genes: The biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes (the threadlike coils of DNA). When genes are expressed, they provide the code for creating the proteins that forms our body’s building blocks. Human traits are influenced by many genes acting together

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Genome: The shared genetic profile that distinguishes humans from other species, consisting at an individual level of all the genetic material in an organism’s chromosomes Behavior geneticists: Study relative power and limits of genetic (our heredity) and environmental influences on behaviour. Most of our differing traits are influenced by many genes, and by the interaction of our individual environments with these genetic predispositions

LOQ: How do twin and adoption studies help us understand the effects and interactions of nature and nurture? ANSWER: - Studies of identical (monozygotic) twins versus fraternal (dizygotic) twins, separated twins, and biological versus adoptive relatives allow researchers to consider the effects of shared environment and shared genes, which show how nature and nurture influence our traits. Shared family environments have surprisingly little effect on personality, though parenting does influence other factors -

To scientifically tease apart the influence of heredity and environment, behavior genetics wish for 2 types of experiments: 1) Control heredity while varying the home environment 2) Control the home environment while arming heredity

LOQ: What have psychologists learned about temperament? ANSWER: - The stability of temperament, a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, from the first weeks of life suggests a genetic and predisposition. The genetic effect appears in physiological differences such as heart rate and nervous system reactivity Heritability: LOQ: What is heritability, and how does it relate to individuals and groups? ANSWER: - Heritability describes the extent to which variation among members of a group can be attributed to genes. Heritable individual differences (in traits such as height or intelligence) need not imply heritable group differences. Genes mostly explain why some people are taller than others, ...