Intro VET TECH Notes PDF

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MANSC-55 Intro to Vet Tech.

Outline: chapter 1: Basic Cell Biology Cell Make-Up:  The cells and their structures are composed of molecules.  Biochemistry is the study of these molecules in living creatures.  Lipids: Or fats combined hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen in a form that is poorly dissolved in water. (This is why fat floats to the top of water.)  Fat consists of a molecule of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.  Fats are stored in the cell body as a source of high energy.  Phospholipids are similar but have only two fatty acid groups, and a phosphate group (PO 4)  Significant because one end is (Hydrophilic) meaning it is attracted to or soluble in water.  The other end is (hydrophobic) repels water.  Carbohydrates have a genetic material within the cell; five- carbon sugars ribose and deoxyribose.  Glucose: (blood sugar), a six carbon sugar used for energy in the cells.  Diabetes: The blood sugar increases to very high levels, but the animal does not utilize it properly.  Polysaccharides are composed of many monosaccharides.  Glycogen: A polysaccharide starch, which is used to store energy within the cell.  Glycogen is made when monosaccharides are taken into the cell and then assemble into a long chain.  Polysaccharides + Protein molecules = Glycoproteins. (Assist to build the cell structure)  Proteins make up 50% of the dry weight of animals.  Proteins are large molecules of amino acids.  Enzymes: are protein molecules that speed up the chemical reactions in the body.  Proteins found in blood help to carry oxygen, stop bleeding, and fight off infection these are called Antibodies.  Ribonucleic acid (RNA)  Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)  Both DNA and RNA have a backbone of sugar alternating with phosphate.  DNA: A double stranded molecule formed as the bases are loosely bounded together.  The molecule has a twisted structure, which is described as a double helix.  A group of three nitrogenous bases is the code for a specific amino acid.  The order of nitrogenous bases makes up the genetic code of an animal.  Each gene provides a code for each peptide chain. Cell Structure:  Specialized structures within the cells are not called organelles.  The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is common in all cells; it serves as the boundary keeping the inside of the cell contained.  Cell membranes are semipermeable meaning they allow certain substances but not others to pass.  The contents of a cell are divided into the nucleus and the cytoplasm.  Cytoplasm is the organelles and fluid in the cell.

The nucleus contains the genetic material such as DNA of the cells, which controls cellular activities by coding for protein synthesis.  DNA in the nucleus is called chromatin. A membrane of two lipid bilayers surrounds the nucleus.  This membrane is often connected to other organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes. Endoplasmic reticulum: a collection of folded membrane, which is often attached to the nucleus.  Ribosomes often line the membrane, giving it a bumpy appearance that’s where the name Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) comes from.  Proteins produced by the ribosomes are deposited into the rough ER.  Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum (SER) has no ribosomes attached , this is not common.  Liver cells contain large amounts of SER.  SER cells produce glycogen and lipids, and removes toxins. Golgi apparatus: formed when large amount s of folded membrane that looks similar to the SER.  Produces polysaccharides and special protein sacs called lysosomes.  Proteins produced in the RER are sent to the Golgi apparatus; proteins are then changed and collected in the lysosomes. Proteins collected in the lysosomes are Enzymes.  Lysosomes contain enzymes that help to break down other molecules.  Lysosomes are used to digest food taken in by the cell and to destroy cell structures that are no longer needed.  Cells that die in the body are released into the cytoplasm. Mitochondria: small rod- shaped organelles found in varying numbers in cells.  The more active the cell the more mitochondria that can be found.  Converts food substances into energy that can be used by the cell. (Known as the power house of a cell) 

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Cell Function:  Metabolism: Describes all the reactions going on in the cell. Can be categorized by two main parts.  Anabolism: describes reactions in which smaller molecules are combined into larger ones. (EX: the joining of amino acids to form proteins.)  Catabolism: the opposite, occurs when large molecules are broken down into smaller ones. (EX: the breaking down of glycogen to release energy.)  A liquid called extracellular fluid (ECF) surrounds living cells.  Water is the major component of ECF, conversely, carbon dioxide passes from the cells through it.  Diffusion: random movement of molecules allows equalization of concentrations across a membrane.  Active transport: Energy is used to actively pump molecules into a region of higher concentrate.  Endocytosis: A large particle is engulfed by the cell membrane and brought into the cytoplasm within a vacuole.  Exocytosis: A membrane- bound sac joins with the cell membrane to release the particle. 5 Protein Synthesis:  Transcription of mRNA: RNA polymerase separates the strands of DNA and creates a strand of mRNA coded by the nucleotides of the DNA molecule.

Mitosis and cancer:  Cell division is controlled by a number of factors present in the cell and extracellular fluid.  Uncontrolled mitosis results in in cancer, new cells are produced to quickly- they accumulate and form a tumor.  The steps of cell division are broken down into four stages:  Interphase  Prophase  Metaphase  Anaphase  Telophase.  A few specialized cells such as nerve and muscle cells have very limited or no ability to divide. Mammalian Reproduction:  In sexual reproduction the sperm and egg cell join to form the new embryo. In this process, half the genetic material is provided by each of the cells.  Meiosis is the division in which the resulting cells contain only half the genetic material.  The final result of meiosis is the formation of four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes.  The phases of meiosis include:  Early Prophase I (Leptotene)  Middle Prophase I (Zygotene)  Late Prophase I (Diplotene) o Homologous chromosomes align in the center of the cell. The Homologous exchange segments of genetic material.  Metaphase I o Similar to the step in mitosis, except that the homologous will separate into opposite cells.  Anaphase I o The chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.  Telophase I o The Cell is divided into two daughter cells, each with half the chromosome numbers of the original cell.    

Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

Clinical practice:  In clinical practice, the appearance of the cell is often evaluated.  A biopsy takes tissues or cells from an animal for microscopic review.  Tumors are a mass in tissue or organs.  Benign: A tumor that is localized in one are, have a well-defined margin, and don’t spread to other parts of the body.  Malignant: A tumor that is more likely to invade surrounding tissue and spread to other parts of the body.

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Pathologists: Doctors who interpret and diagnose changes in cells and tissues. In cancer cells there is often a large nucleus or many nucleoli.

Outline: Chapter 2: Tissue types and functions Epithelial Tissues:  Epithelial tissues are collections of cells packed together in sheets.  The sheets line the body’s surface and openings including of the intestinal, reproductive, and urinary tracts.  They also line the tubes in the body such as blood vessels and the heart.  Epithelial tissues help in many ways such as protecting skin from trauma and sun.  Keep substances from entering the body and also conserve materials within the body.  Provide senses to parts of the body. o The retina in the eye is a specialized epithelial layer that helps to transmit the visual input to the central nervous system. o The tongue has receptors for taste, touch, and temperature. 

Basement Membrane: A collection of fibers that ties the epithelial layer to the underlying tissue.

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Epithelial tissue classifications: 1. Simple, with one cell layer 2. Stratified, with multiple layers 3. Transitional, with multiple layers (The shape of the cell can change.) Descriptive terms to identify shape of a cell: 1. Squamous (very flat) 2. Cuboidal (Cubed shape) 3. Columnar (More tall and wide)

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Two terms are combined above to describe a epithelial cell.  Ex: a simple squamous epithelial cell contains a single layer flat cell. These cells can be so thin that the nucleus bulges in the surface of the cell. o Can be found at in blood vessels, allowing for transfers of nutrients, fluids, gasses, and wastes.

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Endocrine glands secrete hormones which are distributed to other regions of the body via blood stream.  Endocrine glands release the product directly into the blood stream without having internal ducts or tubules. o Ex: The thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands are all endocrine glands.

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Exocrine glands do have ducts which transport their secretions to impact more local areas.  Hormones produced do not enter the circulation. o Ex: sweat and salivary glands.

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Integument: Skin Keratin: a specialized protein.

Connective Tissue:  Tendons, fat, blood, and cartilage are all examples of connective tissue.   

Tendons: Serve to connect muscle to bone Ligaments: connects bones to bones. Cartilage contains no blood vessels and is nourished by a surrounding fluid.

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Adipose Tissue: Another form of connective tissue consists of cells filled with lipid.  Adipose tissue can be found behind the eye, within bone marrow and in the abdomen.

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Blood is considered to be a special type of connective tissue; the cells are suspended in a large volume of liquid matrix called plasma. Red blood cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, white blood cells fight infections.

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Muscle Tissues:  Muscles allow animals to move; there are three types of muscles:  Skeletal  Smooth  Cardiac  Smooth muscle (involuntary muscle) can be found in many of the hollow organs in the body, including the gastrointestinal tract, urinary bladder, and blood vessels. 

Skeletal Muscle is a striated voluntary muscle. Such as the Achilles tendon.  A muscle consists of thousands of fibers, or muscle cells.  An entire muscle cell is called a Myofiber.

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Porcine Stress Syndrome: (PSS) is a genetically transmitted disease in pigs in which calcium is not transported back it to the endoplasmic reticulum.  This causes the muscle to not relax normally.

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Rigor Mortis: (Muscle stiffness) occurs after death because there is no supply of energy to pump calcium back into the Endoplasmic reticulum.  Without energy the muscle cannot relax so they remain stiff. Cardiac muscle is also striated in appearance but is involuntary action.  Cardiac muscles have the unique ability to initiate their own contractions.

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Nerve Tissues:  Nerves allow communication among areas of the body by receiving and transmitting electrical signals.  Nerve tissues are found in the Brain and spinal cord.

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Central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. Peripheral nervous system includes all the nerves outside of the central nervous system.

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Nerve tissue contains cells called neurons.  The body of the neuron houses the nucleus and many other organelles  The axon the hair like extension from the cell body carries the nerve impulses.  Axons many neurons bundled together create a nerve. The nerve impulses occur as a flow of ions passes through the cell membrane. There are three basic types of neurons: 1. Sensory neurons: theses neurons have receptors that are stimulated in response to changes in the animal’s environment. 2. Interneurons: These neurons are found within the central nervous system. 3. Motor neurons: these neurons begin in the central nervous system and extend to the muscle or glad.

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Clinical Practice:  Certain infectious diseases may infect different tissue types.  Ex: foot and mouth disease is attracted epithelial tissues; it is highly infectious and can spread rapidly.  Monday morning disease/ Tying up: common in horses, it often occurs on a Monday after a weekend of rest, when the horse consumes a full diet. After working out or exercising the horse will develop severe cramping.  Can result in damaged muscle tissue and kidneys.

Outline: Chapter 3: The Musculoskeletal System Musculoskeletal System Functions:  Bones furnish five basic functions:  Structure  Longevity  Protection  Mineral reserves  Blood cell protection  The most visible function of bones is structure, which collected together forms a skeleton. Bone Structure:  The bone structure is the framework for the shape and size of an animal.  The structure of a bone contains many different fibers.  The compact bone, within the compact bone lies a more loosely arranged bone, called spongy or cancellous bone.  Spongy bone is found within long bones but not flat bones. (EX: not in the skull or pelvis)  Spongy bone is made of tiny spicules and plates of bone. 

Bones are covered with a thin connective tissue called the periosteum.  Periosteum is the source of blood vessels that supplies the nutrients to the bone tissue.  Periosteum blends into tendon and ligaments, binding them to the bone.  Periosteum does not cover bone portions which have cartilage.

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Bone is composed of a collection of microscopic units called osteon or haversion systems.  Within the center of the osteon is a haversion canal, which blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics run through.  Many osteons are joined together to form the bone.

Joint types and movements:  Joints form where other tissues join two bones.  Types of joints:  Fibrous Joints: The bones in a fibrous joint are brought together with a dense connective tissue. Also called fixed joints because little movement is possible. This joint can be found in the skull, where it is called a suture  Cartilage Joints: The bones in the joint are connected to cartilage. A cartilage joint occurs between two vertebrae and includes the intervertebral disk.  Synovial Joints: Synovial joints are the true moveable joints. It’s a dense layer of bony, and at the joint it’s covered in cartilage. The joint is enclosed with a joint capsule. The outer layer of the joint capsule contains strong connective tissue.  Flexion: occurs when the angle between the two bones gets smaller.  Extension: The opposite of flexion, occurs as the angle between the bones increases.  Abduction: occurs when a part is moved away from the body.  Adduction: occurs when a part is moved toward the body.  Rotation: when a part spins on its axis.  Circumduction: a movement in which the end of a limb is moved in a circular motion. Axial and Appendicular Skeletons:  Axial Skeleton: contains the skull, vertebrae, ribs, and sternum.  Appendicular Skeleton: Consists of the bones of limbs.  The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the forelimbs and hind limbs.  Horses have fewer bones in the distal limbs than dogs do.  The skull (cranium) found in the axial skeleton contains Nemours flat bones (About 50 in the dog).  The vertebral column extends through the length of the body from the skull, and protects the spinal cord and allows movement.  The Vertebral column is broken down into anatomic divisions.  The Thoracic vertebrae are found in the next division of the spinal column.  There is one set of ribs for each Thoracic vertebra.  Bones of the thorax protect the heart and lungs.  The Lumbar Vertebrae, located in the lower back between the Thoracic vertebrae and the pelvis, this area flexes and extends as an animal runs.  The muscles of the abdomen attach these vertebras, forming a sling to hold in the internal organs.  The Sacrum, a group of three Sacrum vertebrae fuses to support the pelvis. The Sacrum then forms with the pelvis, allowing the hind limbs to support the weight of the body.  The Caudal or Coccygeal Vertebrae are small and comprise of the tail.  The Humorous is the upper bone of the fore limb which is connected to the Scapula through a ball socket joint, allowing a wide range of motions.  The humorous then joins the elbow with the radius and the ulna. Number of carpal bones:

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Dogs: 7 Ruminants: 6 Horses: 7 or 8

Bone Growth and remodeling:  A long bone such as the femur divides into the shaft, or diaphysis, and at the ends, the epiphysis.  In young animals a cartilage plate separates the diaphysis from the epiphysis.  These growth plates or epiphyseal plates are the sights of elongation.  Ossification: is the process when osteoblasts move into the cartilage and replace it with bone tissue, this involves more than just minerals to be deposited.  X-rays: a form of electromagnetic radiation that can pass through living tissue.  Radiology: the study of radiographs is an essential part of veterinary and human medicine.

Relation of bones, muscles, and movement:  Bones and muscles together provide the ability to move.  Each level of muscle is covered in connective tissue, which combines to form a tendon.  Some muscles end so closely to the bone no tendons can be seen.  Muscles are often arranged in groups to achieve a single function. o EX: three muscles make up the hamstrings (Biceps femoris, semimembranosus, and semitendinosus.) these muscles work together to extend the hip and flex the knee. Clinical Practice:  Simple Fracture: A bone broken in two pieces, a clean break.  Comminuted Fracture: A result in several fragments of bone.  Compound (open) fracture: when one bone end punctures through the skin. Bone infection higher in this type of situation. In order for a fracture to heal the bone ends must be put back in alignment and held without movement. (Casts or even bone plates threw surgery)  Intramedullary pin: a method of repairing ab broken bone in which a stainless steel pin is inserted into the medullary cavity.  Hip dysplasia: Commonly occurred in dogs, in this condition the ball socket joint of the hip becomes diseased, causing the hip socket to become shallow.  Degenerate joint disease: When a joint becomes so worn that the cartilage lining in the joint becomes thin and roughens.  Joint ill: Occurs when bacteria enters a newborn’s body through the umbilical opening and settles in the joints, with lameness resulting

Outline: Chapter 4: The Circulatory System Blood components and functions:  Blood separates into a fluid portion and a formed- element protein. If blood is placed in a tube and spun the formed elements settle to the bottom of the tube, with the plasma left on top. 

The protein portion of the blood can be dived into three types:  Albumin: The major protein in the blood, maintains the water in the blood stream.  Globulins: A protein in the plasma, which is antibodies produced to fight off diseases.

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Fibrinogen: Aids in clotting blood.

Formed elements in the blood are divided into three fractions:  Red Blood Cells: Carry oxygen, Mature red blood cells do not have a nucleus. RBC’s are produced in the bone marrow.  White blood cells (Leukocytes): Are present to help fight off infections. White blood cells are also produced in the bone marrow, yet they spend little time in the blood stream and more time in tissues to fight off infections. WBC’s have a single nucleus. Five major types of White blood cells which can be divided into two major classes. o Granulocytes: Neutrophils, eosinophils, and Basophils. o Agranulocytes: Ly...