Introduction to Psychology - Summary Midterm Exam week 1-8 PDF

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Psychology INTRODUCTION Our brain is the most complex physical object known Goals of Psychology:    

Description: naming and classifying behavior (nature of behavior) Understanding: achieved when the causes of a behavior can be stated (why) o Ex. bystander apathy Prediction: forecast behavior accurately (when) Control: the ability to alter the conditions that affect behavior

Aristotle: food makes us sleepy because gas and heat collects around our heart (the source of our personality) University of Leipzig 1879, Wilhelm Wundt: hearing a ball drop- sound occurred (1/10) and consciously aware of perceiving the sound (2/10). He established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig.  

First to carefully control and measure observations First to do experiments

Structuralism: Edward Bradford Titchener used “self-report” data (sensations and other elements of experience) through introspection to search for the mind’s structural elements. This didn’t work because it varied from person to person. Functionalism: William James and Mary Whiton Calkins. James mentored Calking, who became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American psychological association (denied PhD though). Under the influence of Darwin, James assumed that thinking developed because it was adaptive- it contributed to our ancestors’ survival.    

He developed functionalism He studied human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and asked: what function might they serve? How might they have helped our ancestors survive? He wrote principles of psychology (took him 12 years).

Sigmund Freud: Focused on mental disorders. The unconscious and childhood experiences Margaret Floy Washburn: the first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D., she synthesised animal behavior research in The Animal Mind. She was the 2nd female president of the APA in 1921. She studied with Edward Titchener, but was barred from his experimental psychology organization (gender). For early pioneers, psychology was defined as “the science of mental life” Behaviorism (1920 - ): the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)  

Focus only on observable behaviour Classical & operant conditioning

Humanism (1960s - ): Thriving vs. surviving. Reach full potential. Humanistic psychology: historically significant perspective that empathized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner: working with Rayner, Watson championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as “Little Albert” redefined psychology as “the scientific study of observable behavior”. Behaviorists. Cognitive revolution: how we perceive, process, and remember information (internal mental processes) Psychology is now known as “the science of behavior and mental processes”

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B.F. Skinner: a leading behaviorist, Skinner rejected introspection and studied how consequences shaped behavior TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGY Cognitive neuroscience: the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) Nature-nurture issue: the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture Natural selection: the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations Plato said we inherit characters and intelligence and that certain ideas are inborn. Aristotle said that there is nothing in the mind that does not first come in from the external world through the senses. John Locke said the mind is a blank sheet on which experience writes. Rene Descartes said some ideas are innate. Descartes said some behaviors are a nature of the species. Levels of analysis: the differing complimentary views, from biological to psychological to socio-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon Biopsychosocial approach: an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis Basic research: pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base Applied research: scientific study that aims to solve practical problems Counselling psychology: a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being Clinical psychology: a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders Psychiatry: a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drugs) treatments as well as psychological therapy Positive psychology: the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive Community psychology: a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

CRITICAL THINKING Critical thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions Isn’t it all just common sense? We should just use intuition. Common errors are hindsight bias (bias in favour of older information), overconfidence, we’re better at “has” than “will”. The past teaches you what’s right and what’s wrong. Hindsight bias: the tendency to believe, after earning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Misperception of random events: doesn’t look random. Perceive order in random events-hindsight bias might be an offshoot of our useful habit of analyzing an event and trying to figure out why it occurred. Perceiving order helps us make predictions; we just need to test it and not overdo it (gambler’s fallacy). Overconfidence: might help lead other people; certainty builds confidence in followers more than accuracy does Why do we make these errors and overuse our intuition? From an evolutionary perspective: Scientific attitude:

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1. 2. 3. 4.

Curiosity – always asking new questions Skepticism – where are the facts? Challenge! Humility – seeking truth, not being right; accept being wrong Ask, test, accept

Anxiety is a negative emotional state characterized by worry, apprehension, and high arousal or physiological activation of the body (Hoar, 2007) The focus is on internal mental processes unassociated with taking the exam     

How you are feeling (emotion) Heart rate and breathing (physiological) Unwanted and intrusive (negative) thoughts/cognition* (Franken, 2001) Negative imagery (cognitive) Fidgeting, restless leg (behavioural)

Theory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events “set principles, built on observations and other verifiable facts, that explains some phenomenon and predicts its future behavior. Organize findings and predict behavior Hypothesis: a testable prediction based on theory. Allow for observations. A disconfirming hypothesis is better than a regular hypothesis. “ADHD symptoms continue after sugar is removed” Operational definition: a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures.” Precise outline of concepts in order to avoid biases and make objective. (Hyperactivity vs. impulsivity) Replication: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. Same concepts and procedures, different participants, materials, circumstances. High school vs. elementary students. Home vs. classroom. Descriptive research: systematic, objective observation of people Case study: an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.   

Phineas Gage worked on a railroad, and an iron rod went through his frontal lobe. He survived, but his personality completely changed. Benefit - good starting point; what can happen Danger - overgeneralization; use anecdotes o He’s just not that into you o He got better after tapping his head so tapping must be the key to health

Naturalistic observation: observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.   

Describe vs. explain Interesting snapshots Can find truths that apply to a broader population

Survey: a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. Many people, self-report (like politics) 

Two issues: wording of questions, sample selected

Wording of questions:

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Someone may not understand the question o Interested in trees/ plants (77%), Botany (39%) Order of alternatives o Traffic makes more or less pollution than industry – 45% (Traffic) o Industry makes more or less pollution than traffic – 24% (Traffic) Sampling issues:

Population: all cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn (except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population). This is not always possible Random sample: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. No systematic differences, remarkably effective. Fundamental part of psychological research. Always consider sample! Be careful about the wording of research, only question randomly sampled people Correlation: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Can be put on a scatterplot.   

Case study: the fewer hours the boy slept, the more aggressive he became Naturalistic observation: students wearing sweaters fell asleep more than those wearing t-shirts Survey: the more Facebook friends reported, the less time was spent studying

Correlation coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1). Represents the strength and direction of correlation.  

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Correlation does not equal causation Thinking critically about correlation: if a low self-esteem test score “predicts” a high depression score, what have we confirmed? o That low self-esteem causes or worsens depression? o That depression is bad for self-esteem? o That low self-esteem may be part of the definition of depression, and that we’re not really connecting two different variables at all? Directionality & third variable

Moving to causation: experiment- manipulate factors of interest (IV) and hold other factors constant (control) Separate participants   

Experimental group(s) (treatment) Control group (no treatment) Control placebo effect

Variable types   

Independent variable Dependent variable Confounding variable

Random assignment: no pre-existing differences between groups Double-blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. Research can’t bias results Find a difference; only explanation is treatment! Confounding variable: a factor other than the independent variable that may produce an effect in an experiment Standard deviation: a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

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Measures of variation:   

Range – lowest to highest Standard deviation (SD) – average distance of scores from mean Less variability, more reliability

Normal curve (normal distribution): a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes Observed differences reliable?   

Sample representative? Observations variable or consistent? How many cases/ data points?

Is difference “significant”?  

“odds of our result occurring by chance is less than 5%” Significant vs. important/ practical

Some research findings revealed by the scientific method:   

The brain can recover from massive early childhood brain damage Sleepwalkers are not acting out dreams Our brains do not have accurate memories locked inside like video files

Statistical significance: a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance Informed consent: an ethical principle that research participants be old enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate Debriefing: the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

BIOLOGY OF THE MIND What makes us, us? You reside in your head Everything psychological is also biological (pain, depression, love, etc.) Biological perspective: concerned with the links between biology and behavior. Includes psychologists working in neuroscience, behavior genetics, and olutionary psychology Biological psychology: includes neuroscience, behavior genetics, neuropsychology, and evolutionary psychology. All of these subspecialties explore different aspects of: how the nature of mind and behavior is rooted in our biological heritage. Our study of the biology of the mind begins with the “atoms” of the mind: neurons. Phrenology: the study of bumps on the skull and their relationship to mental abilities and character traits. Developed by Franz Gall in the early 1800’s. It yielded one big idea – that the brain might have different areas that so different things (localization of function) Neuron: a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. 40 billion in brain. Dendrites: a neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body Axon: the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands Myelin sheath: a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

Action potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

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    

Electrical from chemical Exchange + and – ions No electricity is lost Must reach threshold All or none response

Threshold: the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse Synapse: the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite of cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft   

Action potential releases neurotransmitters Enter synaptic cleft Bind to receptors on receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.     

Serotonin: mood, hunger, sleep, arousal (some depression meds make you have more in your body) Dopamine: movement, learning, emotion Acetylcholine (Ach): muscle action, learning, memory Norepinephrine: alertness, arousal Neurotransmitter has specific receptors on neuron (key-lock combination, opens receptor sites  ions enter)

Reuptake: a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron Endorphins: “morphine within” -natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure Nervous system: the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems Agonist molecule: similar enough to a neurotransmitter that it binds to its receptor and mimics its effects. Produces a temporary high by amplifying normal sensations of arousal or pleasure. Morphine is an endorphin agonist. Antagonist molecule: binds to the receptors and blocks a neurotransmitter’s functioning. Curare (Ach antagonist) Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord, decision maker Peripheral nervous system (PNS): rest of body, transmits information 

PNS uses nerves: bundles of axons (optic nerve – millions of axons from eyes)

Sensory neurons, motor neurons, interneurons Spinal cord: connect PNS to brain, governs reflexes Somatic nervous system: the decision of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called skeletal nervous system Autonomic nervous system: the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses, its parasympathetic division calms. Endocrine system: the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream Hormones: chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues Adrenal glands: a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. Used by ANS to release adrenaline (fight or flight)

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Pituitary gland: the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. Controlled by the hypothalamus.   

Oxytocin: birth contractions, milk production, orgasms in females, allows humans to bond & trust Growth hormone: too much or too less is a problem Cortisol (regulates) stress response

THE BRAIN How did we move beyond phrenology? Case studies of damage:    

Phineas Gage Create lesions (animals) Split-brain patients Stimulate brain areas

Lesion: tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue  

Performed on animals Has yielded some insights, especially about less complex brain structures

Brainstem: the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions Medulla: the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. The reason people can be ‘brain-dead’ Pons: automatic movements Thalamus: the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla Reticular formation: a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and plays an important role in controlling arousal Cerebellum: the “little brain” at the rear of the brain-stem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance Limbic system: neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions (fear & aggression), basic drives (hunger, sex), formation of episodic memories   

Hippocampus: Processes conscious, episodic memories. Works with the amygdala to form emotionally charged memories Amygdala (“almond”): two lima-bean sized neural clus...