Introduction to Research in Education PDF

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Introduction to Research in Education This page intentionally left blank EIGHTH EDITION Introduction to Research in Education DONALD ARY LUCY CHESER JACOBS CHRIS SORENSEN Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Introduction to Research in Educa...

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Introduction to Research in Education

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EIGHTH EDITION

Introduction to Research in Education DONALD ARY LUCY CHESER JACOBS CHRIS SORENSEN

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

Introduction to Research in Education Eighth Edition Donald Ary Lucy Cheser Jacobs Christine K. Sorensen Acquisitions Editor: Chris Shortt Developmental Editor: Tangelique William Assistant Editor: Caitlin Cox Editorial Assistant: Linda Stewart Associate Media Editor: Ashley Cronin Marketing Manager: Kara Parsons Marketing Assistant: Dimitri Hagnere Marketing Communications Manager: Martha Pfeiffer Content Project Manager: Samen Iqbal

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Contents

Preface xv

Part One Foundations: The Scientific Approach in Education

Research Approaches in Education 22 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Chapter 1

1

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

2

Experience 2 Authority 2 Deductive Reasoning 4 Inductive Reasoning 5 The Scientific Approach 7 An Example of the Scientific Approach 8 OTHER ASPECTS OF SCIENCE

Educational Research 20

Key Concepts 20 Exercises 20 Answers 21 References 21

19

26

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

29

Basic Interpretative Studies 29 Case Studies 29 Document or Content Analysis 29 Ethnography 30 Grounded Theory 30 Historical Research 30 Narrative Inquiry 31 Phenomenological Studies 31 TYPICAL STAGES IN RESEARCH

12

Assumptions Made by Scientists 12 Attitudes Expected of Scientists 13 Formulation of Scientific Theory 14 Limitations of the Scientific Approach in the Social Sciences 17 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

22

Experimental Research 26 Nonexperimental Research 26

The Nature of Scientific Inquiry 1

SUMMARY

Chapter 2

19

31

QUESTIONS THAT EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHERS ASK

33

Theoretical Questions 33 Practical Questions 34 BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH LANGUAGE OF RESEARCH

34

35

Constructs 35 Variables 37 Constants 39 SUMMARY

39

Key Concepts 40 Exercises 40 Answers 41 References 42

vii

viii

CONTENTS

Part Two Research Background

ProQuest Digital Dissertations Aggregate Databases 72

72

THE NECESSITY OF MASTERING ONLINE

Chapter 3

DATABASE SEARCHING

The Research Problem 43 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

SOURCES OF PROBLEMS

THE INTERNET

43

EVALUATING THE PROBLEM

75

ORGANIZING THE RELATED LITERATURE SUMMARY

49 52

78

Chapter 5

The Problem Statement in Quantitative Research 52 The Problem Statement in Qualitative Research 53 IDENTIFYING POPULATION AND VARIABLES

The Hypothesis in Quantitative Research 81 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

53

Key Concepts 58 Exercises 58 Answers 59 References 60

81

PURPOSES OF THE HYPOTHESIS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

57

82

SUGGESTIONS FOR DERIVING HYPOTHESES

84

Deriving Hypotheses Inductively 84 Deriving Hypotheses Deductively 85

Chapter 4

CHARACTERISTICS OF A USABLE

Reviewing the Literature 61

HYPOTHESIS

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

61

62

THE ROLE OF RELATED LITERATURE IN QUALITATIVE AND MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

63

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

EFFICIENT LOCATION OF RELATED LITERATURE

64

Indexing and Abstracting Databases Other Education-Focused Periodical Indexes 66 Other Useful Databases 68 Citation Indexes 68 Statistical Sources 71 Government Publications 72

86

A Hypothesis States the Expected Relationship between Variables 86 A Hypothesis Must Be Testable 87 A Hypothesis Should Be Consistent with the Existing Body of Knowledge 89 A Hypothesis Should Be Stated as Simply and Concisely as Possible 90

THE ROLE OF RELATED LITERATURE IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

77

Key Concepts 79 Exercises 79 Answers 80 References 80

48

STATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

SUMMARY

75

Evaluating Internet Sources Online Journals 76

44

Experience 44 Theories 45 Related Literature 47 Noneducation Sources 48 Qualitative Research Problems

74

65

91

The Research Hypothesis 91 The Null Hypothesis 91 The Alternative Hypothesis 92 TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

92

Classroom Example of Testing a Hypothesis 93 THE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PLAN

The Pilot Study

95

94

ix

CONTENTS

SUMMARY

96

EFFECT SIZE

Key Concepts 96 Exercises 96 Answers 98 References 99

136

META-ANALYSIS

138

USING THE COMPUTER FOR DATA ANALYSIS SUMMARY

140 141

Key Concepts 142 Exercises 142 Answers 144 References 145

Part Three Statistical Analysis Chapter 6

Descriptive Statistics 100 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

Chapter 7

Sampling and Inferential Statistics 147

100

101

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Nominal Scale 101 Ordinal Scale 102 Interval Scale 102 Ratio Scale 103

SAMPLING

ORGANIZING RESEARCH DATA

105

Frequency Distributions 105 Graphic Presentations 105 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

108

The Mean 108 The Median 110 The Mode 111 Comparison of the Three Indexes of Central Tendency 112 Shapes of Distributions 112 MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

113

Range 114 Variance and Standard Deviation MEASURES OF RELATIVE POSITION

z Score 118 Other Standard Scores Stanine Scores 120 Percentile Rank 121 THE NORMAL CURVE CORRELATION

115 118

119

123

127

Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient 129 Scatterplots 131 Interpretation of Pearson r 135

147

148

Rationale of Sampling 148 Steps in Sampling 149 Probability Sampling 150 Nonprobability Sampling 155 Random Assignment 157 The Size of the Sample (Fundamentals) The Concept of Sampling Error 158

157

THE STRATEGY OF INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

162

The Null Hypothesis 162 Type I and Type II Errors 163 Level of Significance 165 Directional and Nondirectional Tests Determining the Appropriate Sample Size 168 Power 169

166

THE GENERAL STRATEGY OF STATISTICAL TESTS

171

The t Test for Independent Samples 171 The t Distributions 173 Degrees of Freedom 173 The t Test for Dependent Samples 175 The t Test for Pearson r Correlation Coefficients 178 Analysis of Variance 178 Multifactor Analysis of Variance 183 The Chi-Square Tests of Significance 188

x

CONTENTS

SUMMARY

Validity of Criterion-Referenced Tests 235 Application of the Validity Concept 235

192

Key Concepts 193 Exercises 194 Answers 197 References 198

RELIABILITY

Part Four Fundamentals of Measurement Chapter 8

Tools of Research 199 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

TESTS

199

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY COMPARED

201

Achievement Tests 201 Aptitude Tests 205

SUMMARY

TESTING AND TECHNOLOGY MEASURES OF PERSONALITY

207 207

Objective Personality Assessment 207 Projective Personality Assessment 208 SCALES

208

DIRECT OBSERVATION

258

Key Concepts 259 Exercises 259 Answers 262 References 264

216

Devices for Recording Observations 217 Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Observation 219 Validity and Reliability of Direct Observation 219 Contrived Observations 220 DATA COLLECTION IN QUALITATIVE

SUMMARY

220 221

Chapter 10

Experimental Research 265 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

265

CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

267

Control 267 Manipulation 268 Observation and Measurement EXPERIMENTAL COMPARISON

Key Concepts 221 Exercises 221 Answers 222 References 223

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

270

271

VALIDITY OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Internal Validity

269

271

272

Chapter 9

DEALING WITH THREATS TO INTERNAL

Validity and Reliability 224

VALIDITY

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

VALIDITY

256

Part Five Research Methods

Attitude Scales 209 Rating Scales 213

RESEARCH

236

Sources of Random Error 237 Relationship between Reliability and Validity 239 Equations for Reliability 239 Approaches to Reliability 241 Reliability Coefficients 242 Interpretation of Reliability Coefficients 247 Standard Error of Measurement 251 Reliability of Criterion-Referenced Tests 253 Reliability of Observational Data 256

225

Validation 226 Validity Generalization

234

224

283

Random Assignment 284 Randomized Matching 286 Homogeneous Selection 286 Building Variables into the Design Statistical Control 287

287

CONTENTS

Using Subjects as Their Own Controls 288 Controlling Situational Differences 288 STATISTICAL CONCLUSION VALIDITY

290

CONSTRUCT VALIDITY OF EXPERIMENTS

Threats to Construct Validity Promoting Construct Validity

290

291 292

292

340

THE ROLE OF EX POST FACTO RESEARCH

RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE TYPES

SUMMARY

PARTIAL CONTROL IN EX POST FACTO

Matching 340 Homogeneous Groups 341 Building Extraneous Variables into the Design 342 Analysis of Covariance 342

Threats to External Validity 292 Dealing with Threats to External Validity 294 OF VALIDITY

Alternative Explanations in Ex Post Facto Research 335 An Application of Alternative Explanations 338 RESEARCH

EXTERNAL VALIDITY OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

xi

SUMMARY

295

344

345

Key Concepts 346 Exercises 346 Answers 347 References 348

296

Key Concepts 297 Exercises 297 Answers 299 References 300

Chapter 13

Correlational Research 349 Chapter 11

Experimental Research Designs 301 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

302

Preexperimental Designs 303 True Experimental Designs 305 Factorial Designs 310 Other Randomized Experimental Designs 315 Quasi-Experimental Designs 316 Time-Series Designs 320 Validity Problems with Experimental Designs 322 Single-Subject Experimental Designs 322 Comparison of Single-Subject and Group Designs 327 SUMMARY

Chapter 12 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

331 331

DESIGN OF CORRELATIONAL STUDIES CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS

352

353

Pearson’s Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation 353 Coefficient of Determination 353 Spearman Rho Coefficient of Correlation 354 The Phi Coefficient 355 CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTERPRETING 355

The Nature of the Population and the Shape of Its Distribution 355 Comparison to Other Correlations 356 Practical Utility 356 Statistical Significance 357 Determining Sample Size 357 Correlation and Causation 358 Partial Correlation 359 Multiple Regression 360

PLANNING AN EX POST FACTO RESEARCH

FACTOR ANALYSIS

STUDY

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

334

351

Assessing Relationships 351 Assessing Consistency 351 Prediction 351

A CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

328

Key Concepts 328 Exercises 329 Answers 330 References 330

Ex Post Facto Research

349

USES OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

301

CLASSIFYING EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

361

364

xii

CONTENTS

Controlling Variables in a Survey Analysis 411 Statistics for Crosstabs 413

OTHER COMPLEX CORRELATIONAL PROCEDURES SUMMARY

364

365

Key Concepts 366 Exercises 366 Answers 368 References 370

SUMMARY

414

Key Concepts 415 Exercises 415 Answers 417 References 418

Chapter 14 Chapter 15

Survey Research 371 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

TYPES OF SURVEYS

Defining and Designing Qualitative Research 419

371

373

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Surveys Classified According to Focus and Scope 373 Surveys Classified According to the Time Dimension 376 SURVEY TECHNIQUE

378

Six Basic Steps Involved in Survey Research 378 Data-Gathering Techniques 379 387

Calculating the Standard Error 387 Calculating Sample Size 389 CONSTRUCTING THE INSTRUMENT

391

Format of Questions 391 Structure of Questions 392 Writing Survey Questions 394 USING A MAILED QUESTIONNAIRE

Monetary Incentive 407 Follow-Ups 407 Dealing with Nonresponse VALIDITY

398

420

Approach 420 Explanation 420 Methods 421 Values 421 RESEARCH

423

Concern for Context and Meaning 424 Naturally Occurring Settings 424 Human as Instrument 424 Descriptive Data 424 Emergent Design 425 Inductive Analysis 425 426

Choosing a Problem 427 Sampling 428 Data Collection 431 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH SUMMARY

443 446

Key Concepts 446 Exercises 447 Answers 448 References 449

406

Chapter 16

Types of Qualitative Research 450

408

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

409

RELIABILITY

QUANTITATIVE INQUIRY

DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Directions 398 Order of Questions 398 Matrix Sampling 399 Format of the Questionnaire 399 Recording Answers 401 Field Testing 402 Preparing the Cover Letter 403 MAXIMIZING RESPONSE RATES

DISTINGUISHING QUALITATIVE INQUIRY FROM

MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE

STANDARD ERROR OF THE SAMPLING PROPORTION

419

410

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS IN SURVEYS

QUALITATIVE TAXONOMIES 411

450

451

BASIC QUALITATIVE STUDIES

453

xiii

CONTENTS

CASE STUDIES

Approaches to Action Research 515 Benefits of Action Research in Education 515 Action Research Compared to Traditional Research 516

454

CONTENT OR DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES

459

GROUNDED THEORY STUDIES HISTORICAL STUDIES

457

463

THE ACTION RESEARCH PROCESS

466

Primary and Secondary Sources 467 External and Internal Criticism 468 NARRATIVE RESEARCH

471

OTHER TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

520

Categories of Action Research Problems 520 Strategies for Identifying the Problem Action Research Questions 524

468

PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH

SUMMARY

ACTION RESEARCH PROBLEMS

518

474

521

DATA COLLECTION FOR ACTION RESEARCH

525

Using Multiple Sources of Data 525 Data Collection Strategies 525

476

Key Concepts 476 Exercises 476 Answers 477 References 478

RIGOR AND ETHICAL TREATMENT IN ACTION RESEARCH

528

Rigor in Action Research 528 Ethics in Action Research 530

Chapter 17

Analyzing and Reporting Qualitative Research 480 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

480

ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA

481

DATA ANALYSIS IN ACTION RESEARCH

Coding 531 Stages of Analysis

530

531

DATA INTERPRETATION IN ACTION RESEARCH

Familiarizing and Organizing 481 Coding and Reducing 483 Interpreting and Representing 490 REPORTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

RIGOR IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

497

Credibility 498 Transferability 501 Dependability 502 Confirmability 504

494

534

REPORTING ACTION RESEARCH

536

Components of the Report 536 Publishing and Judging Reports 536 INCREASING USE OF ACTION RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

EVALUATING QUALITATIVE REPORTS SUMMARY

ACTION PLAN

491

TECHNOLOGY IN QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

532

Using Visuals 532 Reflecting 533

508