I&P Whole Year 1 Summary PDF

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CHILD DEVELOPMENTATTACHMENT ‘Early life experiences strongly influence later adult functioning and vulnerability to psychopathology’ John Bowlby Can be divided into secure & insecure attachment based on interaction with 1⁰ caregiver. Secure child: stays quite close to mum, is upset by her leaving & greets positively on return Insecure avoidant: avoids contact with mum on reunion, ok when left with stranger Insecure resistant: very upset by mum leaving, on return difficult to console, both seeks comfort and resists Disorganised: disorganised (combination) Functions of attachment:    

Development of trust Providing a secure base for exploration Developing a self-concept Developing autonomy

Attachment develops as so: PACG 02724+    

0-2 months: pre-attachment 2-7 months: attachment-in-the-making 7-24 months: clear-cut attachment > 24 months: goal-corrected partnership

Stranger anxiety ~ 10 months Separation distress ~ 12 months

What secure attachment does: better social competence, more able to regulate emotion, develop good expression & recognition skills, avoid anxiety and deal with stress better. A secure attachment may not develop if the child is separated from the caregiver during childhood e.g. due to hospital care, parental divorce or bereavement. This lack of early secure attachment affects later adult relationships & their psychological health.

Attachment style

Resulting adult characteristics

Secure • distress when mother leaves • greets mum when she returns

Secure • comfortable in relationships • able to seek support from partner

Avoidant • does not seek mum when returns • focuses on environment

Dismissing • greater sense of autonomy • tend to cut themselves off emotionally from partner

Ambivalent/resistant • very upset at departure • explores very little

Preoccupied • fears rejection from partner • strong desire to maintain closeness

One example of this is the MINNESOTA LONGITUDINAL STUDY that followed ~250 children with moderate risk mothers (in terms of poverty). They found that at 5 years old, insecurely attached children were more reliant on teachers, socially isolated, rated by teachers as passive and easily frustrated. 

THE STRANGE SITUATION (AINSWORTH)

An experiment was carried to investigate what qualities of a caregiver were most important out of food, warmth, contact and rocking. The experiment was Harlow’s monkeys. They found that contact, warmth & rocking were more important than even food. Contact comfort was most important Attachments in young children are selective, involve: physical proximity, provide comfort & security and produce separation distress. Remember, attachment determines development of peer relationships and attachments to others. Also, attachment is important because if insecure, can start prevention earlier on.

CHILD DEVELOPMENT- SEX AND GENDER SEX is biological (male/female) while gender is learned from the culture (masculine/feminine).

Gender is thought to be determined by: Prenatal hormones; which lead to development of male or female genitalia which leads to parents assignation to male or female and raising in this way; which leads to the child’s gender identity. Sometimes, they may have female parts but grow up as a male & vice versa. This occurs in DSD (disorders of sexual development) so their reproductive sexual anatomy is not standard for female/male. It is highly stigmatised so should be noted that it refers to a condition that a person has, not who a person is. Parents have great influence on gender identity by themselves acting as role models, through child-parent interactions and providing ‘gender appropriate’ toys & activities. Sometimes parents prefer one gender over another (usually male) but this is decreasing. Parents treat boys & girls differently very early on as baby girls are perceived to be cute, weak, beautiful, and delicate. But boys are perceived as handsome, big and strong even though they have the same body dimensions. There are two theories about how gender identity/behaviour comes about. One is the social learning theory (Bandura): you get rewarded for masculine behaviour and punished for feminine behaviour  this leads to the child imitating males more  which leads to their male gender identity. The other is the cognitive developmental theory (Piaget): that you start off with your male gender identity  then due to that, you adopt masculine behaviour.l Children understand gender at different points in their lives as so:   

2-3 years: Gender identity (who is a boy or girl) ~4 years: Gender stability (when you grow up you’ll be a mummy or daddy) 4-5 years: Gender constancy (boys don’t change into girls by wearing dresses)

ISC 23,4,45 Different things influence gender identity: family (siblings), peers (encourage separation, prejudice and difference), school (teacher behaviour) and media (through books, magazines & TV). In books specifically, characters are often strongly stereotyped and females are often under represented. Sometimes stories have male vs female stories. In media too, men outnumber women  2:1 in programmes and 3:1 in adverts. Roles are strongly stereotyped and there is a huge emphasis on body image. In terms of cognitive abilities, there are similarities between the genders in general intelligence, learning & memory & complex cognitive tasks. Differences were investigated. The only clear differences were found in throwing, sexuality & physical aggression. However, the research overlooks developmental trends (self-esteem) and context. Investigations have also been found in psychological health in terms of things like substance dependency, depression & eating disorders. More women than men develop depression & eating disorders. Men develop substance dependency more. Boys are often seen as better at maths. Why? Two reasons could explain this:  

boys experience more maths at school & attention from male teachers (who often teach maths) Parental attitudes and reactions to maths (boosting self-competence- girls are often told to be cautious while boys are told more to be confident)

CHILD DEVELOPMENT- COGNITION AND INTELLIGENCE So this person called Jean Piaget developed the stage theory based on children as enquiring scientists who learn through action focusing on how they think rather than what they think. It is as follows: 

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BIRTH- 2 YEARS: SENSORIMOTOR o Has 6 sub stages o knowing the physical environment by seeing and touching – ‘thinking only by doing’

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2-7 YEARS: PRE-OPERATIONAL* 

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Centration: thinking about one idea at a time to the exclusion of others Egocentrism: having a self-centred world view and

having difficult taking another’s perspective This egocentrism is depicted in the 3 MOUNTAIN PROBLEM where children are able to describe the other view from the age of 6-7. Those who don’t show rigidity of pre-operational thought. Operation: mental consideration of information in a logical manner Conservation: understanding that amount is unrelated to appearance (different clay shapes & water in diff glasses) When children learn conservation of volume it shows concrete operation. This type of thought is reversible i.e. they can imagine water being poured back into the glass.

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7-11 YEARS: CONCRETE OPERATIONAL o Thinking in relation to things that are real or imaginable (direct sensory access) e.g. conservation of volume or water in different glasses (conservation) 11+ YEARS: FORMAL OPERATIONAL o Reasoning in purely symbolic terms o Consider alternatives and plan ahead o Systematic testing of hypotheses

SALLY PICKS CHOCOLATE FROSTING 2,7,11,+

Important terminology when understanding what kids understand: Schemas: theories about how the physical & social world operate Assimilation: understanding a new object

2-3 months: develops memory system o baseline leg kicks when attached to a string

o o

attached to a mobile then test later with no string and see if it remembers to kick again 2 month old remembers for a day 3 month old remembers for a week

o

6 months old remembers for >2 weeks

8 months: does lots of things like o Obey simple requests

o

Points to object and follows pointing gestures Holds cup to doll’s mouth

o o o o

Affection by hugs & kisses Can show toes Shakes head or says no for refusal learns object permanence (will look for an

o

object even when it’s covered up) Self recognition

o

Accommodation: modifying a scheme SAA - Basically have schemas, if something new fits within this its assimilated into an existing schema and if it doesn’t fit then schemas are modified – accommodation. IQ = intelligence quotient. Originally: IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100 Now: Calculated from tables of standardised age scores It’s used as an assessment against a fixed quality. Some believe intelligence is a product of genetic inheritance. There is also social and racial difference in intelligence.  Old IQ scores

Tests from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) thing is grouped into domains of cognitive functioning:    

Verbal comprehension Processing speed Working memory Performance organisation

IQ is good for identifying educational needs, good for assessment following neurological trauma & predicting school performance & job success. But, IQ is influenced by environment & culture and does not measure underlying competence or world skills. Phrenology is the study of the shape & size of the cranium as an indication of character & mental ability. Cerebral lateralisation: localisation of function on the brain e.g. language abilities. Can and see asymmetry of function in split brain surgery patients There is left & right hemisphere asymmetry. The left hemisphere does stuff like: complex language functions, complex logical activities, mathematical computations (logic) The right hemisphere does stuff like simple language functions, spatial & pattern abilities and emotional recognition (random)

Child development – language Proficient user of language has a knowledge of: 

Phonology

understanding organization of sounds in languages (sounds used and combination rules) e.g. st and sk are used sb and sd are not Semantics – think ‘SEMEANTICS’ o expressed meaning of words and sentences Syntax o form or structure of a language o eg: John hit Jim , Jim hit John, John Jim hit Pragmatics – think ‘APPROPRAGMATIC’ o rules about language in social context- what to say and how to say it e.g. please and thank you! o

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Stages of acquisition: PATB – pre 0-12, appreciation 8-12, telegraphic 18-24 Pre-linguistic period (0-12 months)  3 forms of vocalisation: o crying (first 3-4 weeks) o cooing (3-6 weeks onwards) o babbling (3-4 months)  adding consonants  echolalia – sound repetition  dialogue returned by caregivers  learn other features o turn-taking, intonation o that words have meaning Appreciation of meaning/ words as representation (12 months):  8-12 months o associate object with its name o verbal labels – not representations Telegraphic speech (18-24 months): say things like more juice, no bed, other bib, all messy, shirt off, see pretty. May do overextending: all men are dad, cows are dogs Beginning of adult speech Adding complexity (2 years +)  adding verbs e.g. daddy hat to daddy wear hat to daddy is wearing a hat  compound sentences: use and or so  past tense eg. adding –ed  logical errors – ‘mouses gone away’ Years 3-5  interest in rhymes and songs  commentaries during play  pre-sleep monologues  all show the emergence of narrative o from actions to spoken stories o links to reading

Theories on language acquisition:  CHOMSKY: innate behaviour, don’t need to be taught, structures in the brain that control interpretation and function of speech. We have language acquisition device and there is a universal grammar

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SKINNER: language is learnt through operant conditioning

Joint involvement episodes: one on one conversations between adult and child. Helps child understand timing of speech, adopts helpful speech style Motherese: baby talk- adult talking to a child in higher, slower voice LENNEBERG: Critical period hypothesis: It hypothesises that there is an ideal time to learn a language, after this it becomes much more difficult. Before age 12 you can learn 2 languages without showing a sign of other accent in either language. You can speak fine if injured head significantly. After 12 with head injury language ability is significantly impaired. Heard word  

Hearing the word o Primary auditory area  Wernicke’s area Speaking the word o Wernicke’s area  Broca’s area  Motor area

Written word  

Reading the word o Primary visual area  Angular gyrus  Wernicke’s area Speaking the word o Wernicke’s area  Broca’s area  Motor area expressive aphasia: damage to Broca’s area; speech: halting, hesitant, difficulty finding words; comprehension: largely unimpaired. With bro you express yourself receptive aphasia: damage to Wernicke’s area, speech: fluent, grammatical, no content, nonsense; comprehension: seriously impaired. With wife (wernickle) you receive stuff Deaf children: With deaf parents have similar language milestones. With hearing parents are at a disadvantage in their language development.

Child development- families and parenting Mother has parental responsibility from birth. Father has parental responsibility only if married to mother at time of birth. Styles of parenting (Baumrind): 1. Authoritarian- strict ideas about discipline and behaviour that are not open to discussion 2. Authoritative- ideas about discipline and behaviour that are explained and discussed with children 3. Permissive- relaxed ideas about discipline & behaviour Style of parent

Authoritative parents have better academic achievement and s Dependent children- live at home with parent, unmarried and financially dependent on parent

12- 18 months will touch mum most but look at unfamiliar peer more than at mum. 2-year olds show peer attention or imitating peers Types of play: 2-4 year olds: alone group play; 5-6 year olds: group play with same sex; 12+ year olds: group play with different sex  

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popular (high ML, low LL) o socially competent controversial (high ML and LL) o dominant characters, sociable, aggressive neglected (low ML and LL) o well-adjusted, shy rejected (low ML, high LL) o at risk, withdrawal, high aggression

Perception More simple than reception and discrimination of stimuli. A process in which patterns of stimuli are organised and interpreted. An active process which uses high levels of cognitive ability such as memory and thought. Top down process- Perception constructed by cognition Bottom up process- Perception directs cognition We can see a negative after image e.g. after looking at bright light. We can see depth. Gestalt or whole perception describes basic organisational tendencies in perception e.g. perceptual organisations (lamp or 2 faces); perceptual constancies (cube turning); Perceptual illusions (colour ones, 2 objects of same length look different). Binocular disparity- view of world produced by 2 intact eyes that brain integrated for 3 dimensional image All things visible by one eye:    

Shading, size, relative size Linear perspective- vanishing point between 2 lines Interposition- part of some object is hidden behind some other object. Texture gradient is the distortion in size which closer objects have compared to objects farther away. It also involves groups of objects appearing denser as they move farther away. So more objects and stuff going on further away

Figure ground effect aka perceptual organisation is recognising objects through vision e.g two faces/lamp Perceptual constancies: an object doesn’t change even if sensory info about it changes eg opening a door HUXLEY believes that there are doors of perception - function of brain and NS which protects you from overwhelming/confusion or irrelevant knowledge as you filter stuff Our sensory processes limit amount of information available to us as we filter out information. Rosenhan put sane people in a psychiatric hospital to prove that it takes time to realize the sane from the insane when they’re in the same environment. The study concluded "it is clear that we cannot distinguish the sane from the insane in psychiatric hospitals" If a split brain patient is flashed with word bird on left side of screen then he sees nothing as contra-lateral rule of visual perception means that this information was available only to the right hemisphere and couldn’t be transferred to the left hemisphere for a verbal response

Consciousness To be conscious you should be awake and aware. Awake is opening eyes and performing reflexes such as coughing swallowing and sucking. Aware is showing thought process and responding to people. The hard problem (Chalmers) - how physical processes of brain give rise to subjective experience. The hard problem of consciousness is the problem of explaining how and why we have qualia or phenomenal experiences—how sensations acquire characteristics, such as colors and tastes Inattentional blindness is failure to recognise something in plain sight as you’re not focusing on it Psychoactive drugs (acts primarily on CNS where it alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness and behaviour) are classified by effect on behaviour e.g. sedatives/ hypnotics, stimulants, opiates (derived from opium e.g. morphine, codeine), hallucinogens/ psychedelics.

Psychedelics (hallucinogens which alter cognitions and perception): They cause hallucinogenic effects such as observing patterns and colours. They have delusional effects as you can feel like merging with your surroundings. They have emotional effects as you get scared. Meditation- There are 2 types. Concentrative aka one-point meditation which diminishes sensory input. Open meditation where you’re aware of everything around you. Hypnosis is a social interaction where one person (the subject) responds to suggestions offered by another (the hypnotist) involving alterations in perception, memory and voluntary action. Associated with subjective conviction bordering on delusion and invol bordering on compulsion – Kilstrom 2 views- 40% of subjects say it’s due to altered consciousness. 60% say it’s due to focused attention so they’re not truly hypnotised. You can have positive hallucinations- see or hear things you don’t normally. Or negative hallucinations- can’t see or hear things you normally can. Can be used as pain relief.

Sleep 4 stages of sleep: episodes of REM – 90 minute cycles Rem sleep occurs in stage 2 Core sleep is the first 5 hours. This is mostly deep sleep (stage 3 and 4). Half of total REM sleep. Optional sleep is next 2+ hours which mostly consists of stage 1 and 2. Bunker study showed we should have circadian rhythm 25 hours cycle to start sleeping at same time each day and waking up as we feel like – regular 7-8 hours of sleep each night As you go through life your total sleep time decreases, your REM sleep decreases, stage 3 and 4 decreases (mostly lost by age 40), parasomnias (Parasomnias are a category of sleep disorders that involve abnormal movements, behaviors, emotions, perceptions, and dreams that occur while falling asleep, sleeping, between sleep stages, or during arousal from sleep) decrease. Dreams are not exclusive to REM sleep but 2x more likely to occur and 6x longer and vivid in REM sleep. INSOMNIA: 1/3 have it. Delayed sleep onset, early wakeup, disturbed sleep. Causes: 80% cases - psychological problems (depressio...