JMS 440 - Class notes + Book PDF

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JMS - 440 01/24/18 Freedom of the press The first amendment (USA constitution), places its roots in the John Milton ideal. 17th century, among his many writing offers is idea of free marketplace of ideas: only when all ideas can be shared and argued over, then it’s possible to find the truth or find the best idea. He encouraged everyone to give their idea and argue over them. In the 17th the only idea that had the right to be spoken about was the idea from the monarchy (King and its inner circle). Other people didn’t have the right to give their opinion about politics and social. Restrictions: - licensing of books and papers: you needed a license from the king or a representative - restriction on who could own a press and printers - submission of papers to censor prior to publication - freedom to speak limited to king’s circle Harsh penalties for illegal/offending publications: - seizure and destruction of press - revocation of license; financial penalties - jail for sedition or criminal libel It was a monopoly of information. It was against this backdrop, that John Milton reacted. Specific rights guaranteed by the First Amendment: - Freedom of religion The first Amendment prevents the government from establishing an official religion. Citizens have freedom to attend a church, synagogue, temple or mosque of their choice – or not attend at all. The F.A. allows people to practice religion the way they want to (or not at all). - Freedom of speech The first Amendment keeps the government from making laws that might stop people from saying what they think. People have the right to criticize the government and to share their opinions with others. - Freedom of press A free press means that the government cannot control what is printed in newspapers and books, broadcast on TV or radio or offered online. Citizens can pass out leaflets that give their opinions. They can have their own web pages and offer their opinions to others through the many means made available by the internet. - Right of peaceably assembly/association Citizens can come together in public and private gatherings. They can join groups for political, religious, social or recreational purpose. By organizing to accomplish a common goal, citizens can spread their ideas more effectively. - Right to petition to government “To petition the government for a redress of grievances” means that citizens can ask for changes in the government. They can do this by collecting signatures and sending them to their elected representatives; they can write, call or email their elected representatives; they can support groups that lobby the government. *The First Amendment goes too far in the rights in guarantees: Agree: 22.5% (2017) vs 19% (2015) Disagree: 68.6%(2017) vs 75% (2015)

JMS - 440 In 2016, 9% agreement among 18- to 30-years-olds vs 22% among those 65+ (In 2014, 47% agreement among 18- to 30-years-olds vs 23% among those 60+)* First amendment is one of the ten amendments in the constitution, together called the bill of rights. The Bill of rights is fundamental: they protect the inalienable rights – so fundamental to democracy and citizens. Government role it’s to protect those rights, it doesn’t matter the party or the administration, nor the president or the congress: those rights are always to be protected. These rights are protected for everyone, no matter how unsavory the idea is, everyone’s idea is protected by the first amendment. Over time theorists have developed three approaches: 1. The Absolutist Approach The First Amendment means exactly what is says: Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech. Under this approach, the only question is whether the action in question is truly “speech” (and therefore protected) or “conduct” (and therefore subject reasonable governmental regulation). You can be a terrorist, but the amendment should protect you. 2. The Categorical approach Would determine whether to protect speech based on the label attached to the speech in question. Certain categories of speech are seen as falling outside the protection of the First Amendment (i.e. obscenity) whereas most other categories of speech are highly protected. 3. The Balancing approach Views the Absolutist approach as impracticable and the Categorical approach as an artificial construct. The Balancing approach holds that in every case courts should weigh an individual’s interest in free expression against the government’s interest in restricting the speech in question. USA’s Supreme Court usually applies the Categorical Approach. Obscenity isn’t protected by the First Amendment, as “fighting words” (violent content, that could bring harm and violence) – if there’s the imminent threat of harm or violence, it would be out of the first amendment. But every else speech, even if it’s against the government’s wishes, it’s protected. William Randolph Hearts (publisher at The New York Journal) and Joseph Pulitzer (publisher at The New York World), in the late 19th Pulitzer had a cartoon “The Yellow Kid”, but her cartoonist went away. He so hired another cartoonist that created another Yellow Kid and then they tried to make them merge – battle against the Yellow Kids: The Yellow Journalism  War of Words: a newspaper editorial cartoon from the turn of the century depicts the fierce rivalry between newspaper chain moguls Pulitzer and Hearts. The two men are credited with beginning the shift to “yellow journalism”.  Yellow journalism and the yellow press are American terms for journalism and associated newspapers that present little or no legitimate well-researched news while instead using eyecatching headlines for increased sales. Techniques may include exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering or sensationalism. By extension, the term yellow journalism is used today as a pejorative to decry any journalism that treats news in an unprofessional or unethical fashion. Fake news: for mainstream media, whatever the mechanism is in delivering information, what they’re selling with news is their reputation. Fake news ruin credibility, people cannot trust material that the media is reporting and so there’s no value.

JMS - 440 Factors influencing the expansion in the American press: - Coincided with the industrial revolution (ability to produce large scale and distribute the printings) - Emergence of newspaper factories - Profit-centered media - Growing importance of advertising (money to the industry) - Increase in literacy (not only able to print and distribute, but people will consume these products – ability of the audience) - Move from agrarian to urban-centered life Factors influencing media concentration: - Decline in family ownership (which has been the standard for a long time – decline due in part to the taxes) - New technology/more consumer options (possibility to diversify the offer and obtain economy of scale in diversification) - Tax law changes that favor corporate expansion/Business climate favoring corporate expansion - Conglomerates taking over media industries (lot of companies, even if they had nothing to do with medias, have been attracted to media firms because of the profitability of this industry). 2/14/18  test pushed back to February 28th “ALL THE PRESIDENT’S MEN”  Mark Felt – anonymous source, worked for the FBI. The confidential informant known for 30 years as "Deep Throat" is finally out of the shadows, identified as senior FBI official Mark Felt. But as the last major detail of the Watergate story was revealed, a younger generation strained to understand what the fuss was all about, and others realized they'd forgotten many of the key details. His identity has been revealed only after his death.  Katharine Graham – owner of The Washington Post at the time of Watergate Scandal. She risked everything (both personally and as a publisher) going against Nixon’s Administration.  Ben Bradley – editor at The Washington Post at the time of Watergate Scandal. He was Woodward’s and Bernstein’s manager. Tough and tenacious personality, but dedicated to his journalists and committed to the job. Chapters 2 The human beings within an organization, with their feelings and emotions, must be the first concerns of the manager. Effective managers have: - A vision of where they want their employees and the company to go (vision) - The ability to communicate that vision to others - A talent for building trust in other (building a loyal staff) - The ability to positively manage themselves Schools of management: - Henri Fayol, French management theorist started as a mining engineer, using this as a base for his theory: “Planning, Commanding, Controlling, Coordinating, Organizing”.

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Furthermore, he is well known for a list of management functions he retained necessary for a manager: Fayol’s Principles. Some of them are: o Division of labor (dividing tasks based on each employee’s abilities) o Equity (overrating sense of fairness among workers, it is a manager responsibility to make sure that workers feel treated fairly – it makes them more productive) o Esprit de corps, a Positive morale (management is responsible that his employees have a positive morale) Fredrick Tailor, studied workers in the steel mills, he was focused on the best way (efficient and productive) to do each task. “Scientific management”. He is famous for taking a portion of production and dissecting it in any single action necessary to complete each task. Furthermore, he is well known for the idea of “incentive paying”: when people exceed their goals, they must be rewarded (monetary or not reward). A goal based system and incenting people to exceed their goals, pushes the production. Theory X and Theory Y, Douglas McGregor’s theory: o Theory X  People don’t really want to work and will try to avoid doing tasks  Managers must control and coerce workers to do their job (negative reinforcement)  Workers are not motivated, don’t desire responsibility and prefer to be directed  Managers use their position to force workers to work o Theory Y  Work is viewed as a natural part of life, people don’t inherently dislike it  People will commit to goals they view as producing personal rewards  Workers seek out and accept responsibility  Workers want to achieve goals in which they’re committed  Workers’ full intellect and creativity goes untapped  Managers usually adopt both theories Type Z Organizations, theory less focused on the leader/manager, more on the organization. Developed by William Ouchi. He observed the distinguishing characteristics between Japanese and American’s companies, including the fact that the US companies were really focused on the individual worker, while in Type Z organization there was more focus on the group o Longer term employment (lifetime contracts entail workers to get along with each other) o Relatively slow advancement o Management experience in different departments (deep understating of the organization in all its component parts) o Monitoring of activity with maximum flexibility o Emphasis on participative decision making and consensus o Holistic attitude with a sense of family o Self-directed employees with emphasis on positive motivation o Emphasis on teams and other methods of including employees at all levels of the organization (inclusive attitude towards every worker) o Strong communication flow throughout the organization

Other types of organizations: - Machine organizations:

JMS - 440 Substantial specialization of jobs Lots of oversight and supervision Rigid command and control with formal decision-making policies Workers performing the same exact task Numerous subordinates in a narrowly defined specialty area for each supervisor, also called a narrow span of control o No room for creativity and decision making on how to do the job o A tendency towards substantial and frequent supervision Professional organizations: o Workers have wide job latitude o Loose command and control o Broadly defined departments and divisions o More limited direct supervision. Management is more involved in coordinating than controlling o A sense of professional ethic, with work a s a higher-level activity that has a greater social purpose  Media organization are “Professional organization”, people usually do not get into media for the paycheck, but aiming for a higher purpose.

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Chapter 3 Organization are complex primarily because it sums up a lot of individuals and personalities. Media Organization are populated by highly educated and very self-confident individuals, who have clear ideas on their morale. -

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Perception – our view of the world and the assumptions that we make Terministic Screens, by Kenneth Burke – personal filters that change the perception of the world, based on our culture, belief, education (e.g. you read a book and then you see the movie, it may be disappointing because the perception of the director might be different than ours) Selective influence theory o Selective attention – we filter out “clutter” and information we view as less important in order to focus on what really matters to us or we perceive as important o Selective perception – we perceive meaning and value based on our values, attitudes and prior knowledge o Selective action – we choose whether to act on, ignore or “file” information/communication

Motivation theories: - Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – the needs at the bottom must be met before human beings can move upward to the higher-level needs. The highest-level need is self-actualization, being the best you can be. The same kind of theory applies to the workplace, managers should motivate the workers giving them tools to reach higher level needs. o Self-actualization (living your higher potential) o Esteem (acquiring the skills that lead to honor and recognition) o Love & belonging (achieving deeper, more meaningful relationships) o Safety (home) o Physiological needs (food, water sleep)

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Herzberg’s motivation theory – it deals with two kinds of factors: extrinsic and intrinsic o Job context (extrinsic factors)  Hygiene factors: do not give positive satisfaction or lead to higher motivation, though dissatisfaction results from their absence  Company policies  Administration  Supervision  Salary  Personal relationship  Working conditions o Job content (intrinsic factors) – so called “satisfiers”, tend to mean a lot in job satisfaction  Motivator factors: that give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or personal growth  Achievement  Recognition  The work itself  Responsibility  Advancement  Working conditions ERG theory (Alderfer) – existence, relatedness and growth needs; some are more important and the evaluation may change during a human’s life o Existence needs (food, water, pay, working conditions – physiological in Maslow) o Relatedness needs (personal and social relationship – social needs in Maslow) o Growth needs (being creative or productive, doing things that are worthwhile – selfrealization in Maslow)

Examples: - B=f(SO) Behavior is a function of the situation and the organization; every time we’re putting someone in a determined position, we must take into account the situation and the person itself so that we can predict his behavior - Your subordinates are NOT you Some people may react differently than what we would in determined situations, do not take anything for given - Most media professionals have a sense of “calling” - Extrinsic (external) = symbols of worth; Intrinsic (internal) = feelings of worth - Coach employees from their perspective - Put square pegs in square holes, round pegs in round holes - Cardinal rule: treat others as you would want to be treated (see situation from someone else perspective) Chapter 4 -

Equity theory – when workers do not believe there is equity in their work environment, they try to restore the balance by whatever means are necessary and available (inequity in benefits, positioning, pay; anything that makes feel them in disadvantage) o Changing the way tasks are done o Making suggestions for improvement o Creating the illusion of productivity (act like they work but they don’t)

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o Withdrawing – physically or psychologically Expectancy theory – based on knowledge, experience and past practice, workers assume certain outcomes will result from their actions. Behavior = predictable outcome. There are two “outcome paths” motivating workers: o The probability that effort produces desired performance o The probability that performance produces a desired outcome Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence Effort -> Performance -> Rewards Will my effort lead to high performance? Will my performance lead to high rewards? Will the rewards be desired? Organizational justice o Distributive justice – the fairness of the benefits that workers receive and how they are distributed throughout the organization o Procedural justice – the perception of whether the process/rules/guidelines by which those benefits are determined are fair and just There is a causal relationship between an employee’s perception of the fairness of an organization and the employee’s organizational citizenship Organizational Hologram Theory o The more individual and organizational culture, values and norms are reflective of one another the more effective the organization o Productivity and efficiency are enhanced when there is an optimal “fit” between personal and organizational values Malicious Compliance – doing work that appears to comply with directives and organizational goals, but that really harms effectiveness o Pretending to work hard, when real productivity and creativity is reduced o Doing only what the job description says with no circumstantial adaption

Organizational climate - Climate refers to the collective beliefs, expectations and values within an organization that serve as a frame of reference - Climate is the atmosphere of an organization Organizational culture - Culture refers to rituals, practices and patterns of behavior that set an organization apart - Culture is the pattern of basic assumptions that a group develops, discovers or invents - Culture is an acquired knowledge base that evolves as an organization evolves Organizational culture manifests itself in - The ways the organization conducts its business, treats its employees, customers and the wider community - The extent to which autonomy/freedom is allowed in decision making and personal expression - How power and information flow through its hierarchy Levels of organizational culture - Behavior and artifacts  visible/tangible - Values  shared goals, principles, standards - Assumptions and beliefs (about reality, human nature; ingrained) Common types of Organizational Culture - Collaborate – open, friendly; extended family

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Create – dynamic, entrepreneurial, creative Control – highly structured, formal Compete – results-driven, competitive

JMS - 440 PART 2 CH 5 Organizational effectiveness How to measure a company’s success: when we’re looking at effectiveness there are many indicators that may be used. Therefore, many are the variables that affect the organizational effectiveness:  Internal variables o Employee social interaction (i.e. team atmosphere or formal hierarchy) o Office politics (a lot of office politics brings to backstabbing and reduces effectiveness) o Labor atmosphere and turnover of personnel (high turnover leads to a waste of energies)  External variables (not something that the organization can necessarily control): o Changing competitive situation o Audience or customer perceptions o Public attitude during crises (i.e. to whom do people turn for news and information when something big happens, the media outlet of record) o Attitude of regulators (i.e. FCC, FTC) – TV, radio Organizations and the external environment Four categories in terms of approaches: - Structural Organizations operate within the external forces that determine the direction of the company. O...