Kin 1080 notes 2019 PDF

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Kin Final Notes Information Processing: 3-Stage Approach • •

How the brain processes different types of information and where that information gets processed. These stages of information processing are serial and discrete.

Stage 1: Stimulus Identification • •

Stimulus detection is when sensory information attained from external sources is detected and transformed into neurological signals. It is the unconscious substage of stimulus identification. Pattern recognition is when the feature from the stimulus is extracted and made meaningful and useful for future information processing. ▫ You are extracting relevant patterns of the environment to make it useful for you. ▫ Think about studying film in football and recognizing defensive schemes in order to better recognize what the opposing team is trying to do in a game.

Chess Study • • •

Masters have better pattern recognition/extraction than most in a real game setting. In a randomized setting (random pieces everywhere) they did terribly because the patterns they were used to seeing were not there. The novice players had much more success because they had never seen chess patterns before.

X-ray Leg Study • • •

Medical students, medical residents, fellows (graduated but no job), physicians and radiologists all look at the xray of a leg and are tasked with making a diagnosis. Medical students, residents and fellows were all roughly 60% accurate, physicians were around 80% whereas the radiologists were nearly 100%. Radiologists are most accurate because they are a lot better at pattern recognition as they look at x-rays on a daily basis. Pattern recognition improves with practice.

The Cognitive Theory of Expertise • •

States that you need to practice for either 10,000 hours or 10 years to reach an expert level. This theory ignores genetic components as not everyone who deliberately practices football for 10,000 hours goes to the NFL as they may not have the size, speed, etc.

Birthdate Asymmetry • • • •

Looked at the birthdates of European Soccer players and their skill levels. House league showed no difference whereas those playing elite level professional soccer are born in the first quartile of the year (January to March). Those who are born in the first and second quartile are more physically mature and cognitively developed. Coaches also tend to favor and work harder with kids that are more physically developed.

Stage 2: Response Selection • • • •

Anytime you increase the amount of stimulus response alternatives, you increase response time. Hick’s Law: Allows you to predict someone’s Choice Reaction Time (CRT). A tool that allows someone to determine how long it is going to take someone to react to a stimulus. CRT = a+b[log2(N)]

Stimulus Compatibility •

Extent to which a stimulus and response are associated in a natural way.

Spatial Compatibility (Paul Fitz) • • •

Reaction times increase in a spatially incompatible environment. The task in the spatially compatible was to use their left index finger when the light stimulus is shown on their left side. The incompatible task would be using your right index finger if you see the light stimulus on your left side. Spatial incompatibility increases reaction times and increases the chance for human error.

Word-Color Compatibility (Stroop Task) • • • • •

Task associated with executive function. The Stroop Task exhibits response suppression which takes place in the prefrontal cortex. Stroop task: The word yellow is written in red. The actual reading of the word is a standard task (pro saccade). Saying the color is a non-standard task (anti saccade) which is response suppression (prefrontal cortex).

Task Switching Paradigm • • • • • • • •

AABB = Task Switching Paradigm The A’s are standard task and the B’s are non-standard tasks. Therefore, the A’s are the word naming tasks and the B’s are the color naming tasks. What is the cost of switching from an A to a B? What is the cost of switching from a B to an A? When you go from an A to a B, reaction time and performance remain unchanged. When you go from a B to an A, reaction time increases. This is caused by the interference left over from the non-standard task (B) in the prefrontal cortex that is affecting your ability to perform a standard task. Exercise is proven to improve the activity in the prefrontal cortex so if you go from a B to an A after doing exercise the interference will be gone.

Stage 3: Response Programming •

Following response selection, the action must be translated into appropriate muscular signals to achieve task goals.

Henry and Rogers (1960) • • • • • •

3 stage Task 1: Lift finger from key following a stimulus Task 2: Lift finger from key and move 33cm to grasp a tennis ball Task 3: Lift finger from key, grasp the tennis ball and then grasp another tennis ball from the opposite direction Reaction time increased as a function of task complexity. When we plan a complicated response, it is planned in advance. You know everything you have to do in the movement, and you program it in advance (only applies to voluntary movements).

Attention • • • • •

Nobody really knows what attention is, but the definition given is that it is the focalization and limitation of information processing resources. Inattention blindness is a phenomenon that is due to this focalization of attention (think of the moon walking bear). Focalization of attention is task dependent (taking a free throw vs teeing off in golf). Exogenous stimulus: Captured by the superior colliculus and draws attention to the stimulus with the eyes (seeing an explosion you were not expecting). Endogenous stimulus: Expecting it.

Neisser Study

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Participants were asked to learn a list of 100 words. 20 of the 100 words were associated with an aversive stimulus (mild electrical shock) Galvanic skin response: measures skin conduciveness (creepy crawly feeling) in reaction to a stimulus (like being scared). The words associated with the aversive stimulus increased galvanic skin response 6 months after the test. This demonstrates that attention and consciousness are dissociable (separated) processes.

Attention as a Single Resource • • • •

We have a limited pool of attentional resources. 2 tasks/processing activities can be performed together if their attentional demands to not exceed resource capacity (ex: driving a car and talking on the phone) Any more than 2 and things become dicey. If you’re driving in the snow on the 401, your concentration and vigilance takes up more space which means you can only do one thing well so the conversation you’re having will not be good as you are no longer focused on it.

Attention for Control • • • • • • •

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Each stage of information processing takes time. A bottleneck refers to a problem that delays progress. The Early Theory of Attentional Control proposes that the bottleneck of attentional control occurs prior to stimulus identification. Consider the cocktail party phenomenon (one’s ability to focus on one conversation with many others). It is very strict. The Late Theory of Attentional Control proposes that the bottleneck of attentional control occurs between stimulus selection and response selection. The Psychological Refractory Period is the delay in responding to the 2nd of 2 stimuli in rapid succession (getting juked by Barry Sanders). Your reaction time goes up when you’re processing the first stimulus so when the second move is put on you are frozen. It is this delay in response selection that firs the late theory of attention. If the two stimuli are presented within 50ms of each other, they are seen as the same stimulus (no refractory period) If the two stimuli are delayed by 50-125ms, there is a refractory period. The they are delayed over 125ms, they are dealt with separately.

Attention as a Multiple Resource • • • •

Assumes that we have more than one central resource (pool of attention). Interference between activities occur if we draw on the same resources. No interference occurs if we draw from different resources. 3 separate pools of attentional resources: ▫ Spatial activities ▫ Cognitive activities ▫ Motor activities

Daniel Kish (Echolocation) • •

Daniel gets activation of his visual cortex when presented with a stimulus (like a tree) even though he is blind. His visual cortex has been reorganized which shows that the brain adapts (neuroplasticity).

Arousal • • •

Arousal and attention are specific to the task you are performing. A quarterback can’t have too much arousal because he needs to spread his attention to an entire field. A blitzing linebacker would have increased arousal because they are after the ball, their attention is on one thing.

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Specific task demand has an effect on attentional control (you need quiet during teeing off in golf but not in a free throw shooting scenario).

The Speed of Attentional Capturing • • •

Exogenous stimulus: Unexpected/Reflexive. Endogenous stimulus: A stimulus that you can act on that you are aware of. Both these deal with the superior colliculus.

Attentional Capacity and Instruction (Leavitt Study) • • •

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Was interested in looking at skating development. Age groups: 6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16 4 conditions: ▫ Skating from one end of the ice to the other ▫ Skating from one end of the ice to the other while calling out geometric shapes (motor +cognitive) ▫ Skating from one end of the ice stick handling ▫ Skating from one end of the ice stick handling and calling out geometric figures Wanted to know when skating became an automated task and only skating time was measured. For the 6 -10-year old's, as the task complexity increased so did skating times. For the 11-16-year old’s, there was no significant difference in skating times across the 4 conditions. For the 16-year old’s, there was NO difference. This concludes that from the ages 6 to 10, skating is not an automatic task, but it becomes one as you get older.

Coordination (finger wiggling experiment) • • • • •

People with split brain syndrome are the only ones that can do it. When you have 2 effectors moving in different directions, you are performing an anti-phase movement. You need all your attention to do it. As finger wiggling increases to 5Hz, your movement becomes destabilized and results in you falling into an inphase coordination pattern. The CNS only likes to have one temporal pattern.

Neural Correlates • •

Lapse of attention (putting coffee in your cereal). Studying lapses of attention show the cortical and subcortical structures that support attention.

Memory Systems • • • • •

The Hippocampus is the cognitive memory not motor. The cortex seems to support cognitive memory and the cerebellum seems to be the important factor for learning new motor tasks. Frontal lesions cause personality change and have trouble with emotional control. Memory consolidation is a key aspect of memory formation The brain is modularized if different memory systems: ▫ Short Term Memory Store (STSS) ▫ Short Term Memory (STM) ▫ Long Term Memory (LTM)

STSS • • • •

Brief duration, large capacity and veridical (deals with picture). Unconsciously captured information. Replaces old information and replaces it with new information. Pre-categorial: it cannot differentiate between categories.

STM • • •

Buffer between STSS and LTM Brief duration, limited capacity (7+/- 2 bits of information) Categorical: Information can be placed into different categories (a couch is a piece of furniture, a dog is an animal).

The Brown-Peterson Task (Tri-gram) • • • • • • •

Participants are given 3 letters to remember. They must recall the numbers after counting backwards by 3’s (277, 274, 271, etc.) The rehearsal of the letters is prevented by the counting task. Information reliably persists in the STM for only 3 seconds. This is unrehearsed information. After 3 seconds it is no longer reliable. Proactive interference: Old information prevents the recall of newer information. Retroactive interference: Newer information prevents the recall of old information. The Brown-Peterson task is an example of retroactive interference.

Pointing Task • • • • • •

Pointing at a target in an open loop setting (seeing the target and pointing at it) and in a brief delay (visual delay between seeing the stimulus and pointing to it. As soon as there’s a brief delay, huge pointing delays happen. There’s no visual memory for a target that is as good as actually seeing the target (shooting a basketball with eyes open vs eyes closed). You get worse as soon as vision is taken away. Vision for movement and vision for cognition are very different. Proprioceptive information can last 2000ms (if you were to hold someone’s arm up to where they are supposed to be and then you put it back down, they would be able to recall the position of their arm for roughly 2000ms).

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve • • • • •

Measures recall accuracy Immediate recall: 100% After one day: forget 70% of what you learned After 2 days: Only about 25% of original recall Most of what we are asked to learn is lost within the first 24 hours but after that 24 hours there is a steady retention.

Sleep and Memory Consolidation • • • •

Sleep prevents forgetting and makes memories resistant to proactive and retroactive interferences. Especially if sleep closely follows learning. Sleep allows for the hippocampus-neocortical dialogue and info transfer. With sleep, the hippocampus and the temporal love synchronize their activity. When we sleep we are consolidating new memories

Sleep and Memory Types •

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Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) predominates the first half of the sleep cycle. ▫ When someone wakes you up and you are out of it due to a deep sleep. ▫ This is due to the dialogue between the hippocampus and the temporal lobe which is essential for consolidation of long-term memories. ▫ People who do not get SWS do not have the same ability for high level memory consolidation. Random Eye Movement Sleep (REM) predominates the second half of the sleep cycle.

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▫ Without getting enough REM people do bad on tasks that require motor memories. ▫ REM sleep is therefore important for consolidating motor memories. The SWS would be more so for retaining explicit memories (like studying for an exam) whereas the REM is important for implicit memories (practicing for a practical exam).

LTM • •

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Limitless capacity Composed of 3 subsystems: ▫ Procedural Memory (implicit) ▫ Semantic Memory (explicit) ▫ Episodic Memory Procedural memory stores knowledge of how to do a skill or activity. We are able to do something but not able to verbally describe it well (swimming, basketball). These memories are retained in the cerebellum and so they are accessed on an unconscious level. Semantic memory stores general knowledge about the world that has been acquired from many different experiences (factual and conceptual). Ex: knowing random facts. Episodic memory stores knowledge about personally experienced events. Ex: Exactly where I was when I crashed the van, what I was wearing and who I was with. These tend to be the robust because they are multi-sensory memories.

Fitts and Posner’s Stages of Learning • •

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Learning a motor skill. 3 distinct stages: ▫ Cognitive: development of basic movement patterns ▫ Associative: Refinement of movement patterns ▫ Autonomous: Performance of the movement becomes automatic A good example of the autonomous stage that most people are in is for tying shoes.

Cognitive Stage • • • • •

High degree of cognitive activity and attentional demand. The movement lacks synchronization, looks choppy and deliberate. The person is actively thinking about the task they are performing. Numerous errors. Lacks the capability to determine the cause of the errors and how to correct them.

Associative Stage • • • • •

More consistent. Attentional demand for movement production decreases. Fewer errors and improvement of detecting cause of errors. Begin to develop appropriate error correction strategies. Cerebellum begins to get involved to establish LTM.

Autonomous Stage • • • • •

Highest level of proficiency. Attention is reallocated to strategic decision-making. Consistent and confident in their performance. Few errors and can generally detect and correct the errors they do make. Mediated via the cerebellum.

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If you make an error in this stage that you are conscious of (a golfer hooking his drive to the left) it can be very detrimental to their performance because they begin to think about their movement again. You want a person’s cortex to be quiet during a movement because you want it to be mediated by the cerebellum.

Increasing Long Term Memory Potential •

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Use of motor imagery ▫ Thinking about performing a task activates the same cortical areas as actually physically performing the task. Verbal Label ▫ Providing a verbal label to the movement (ex: release the football at 11:30 position) Intention to remember cue ▫ Heath saying that he is going to give us 5 questions on Long-Term Memory on the final exam is a cue that will facilitate our studying long term memory. Subjective organization ▫ Grouping information into smaller units ▫ Ex: Learning a long dance routine of 25 minutes is facilitated by learning the routine in 5 separate 5 minute units. A randomized practice schedule is very well known to increase consolidation of long term memories (learning the 3rd part then the 1st part then the 2nd then the 5th then the 4th).

Closed Loop Motor Control ** •

Using sensory information to monitor their ongoing movement so it can be as good as they want it to be.

Vision • • • •

The pathway from the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus to V1 is called the Geniculostriate Pathway. The information from V1 to the inferotemporal cortex is the Ventral Visual Pathway. This is the pathway that allows humans to identify an object using vision. The Posterior Parietal Cortex (PPC) to V1 is the dorsal visual pathway which is vision for action. Supports actions that are mediated unconsciously.

The Human Eye • • • • •

Cornea: Transparent part of the eye. Provides optical power by refracting light. Iris: Colored part of the eye. Controls light levels similar to a camera aperture – when iris muscle contracts it allows more light into the pupil. Pupil: opening in the center of the eye; directly determines light level entering the eye. Optic disc: Point of “connection” between retina and optic nerve. The point at which the optic disk and the retina connect is a blind spot (optic disk blindness).

Retinal Cells • •

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There are 2 types of retinal cells: Rods and Cones Rods ▫ Achromatic (black and white) ▫ Equally dispersed throughout the retina ▫ Very low spatial resolution ▫ Provides Night vision Cones ▫ Chromatic (color) ▫ Largely located in the center of the retina (central vision) ▫ High Spatial Resolution ▫ Do not operate in low light levels.

Color Blindness • • •

Congenital Form: Born without the cone cells Acquired Form: Caused by a brain injury (ex: stroke) Achromatopsia is an example of the acquired form.

Binocular Vision • •

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Binocular Rivalry ▫ Vision using two eyes with overlapping fields of vision, allowing goof perception of depth. St...