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Topic 2; cells, tissues and integumentary system Function of plasma;

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Barrier between intracellular and extracellular environment Regulates exchanges of molecules Sense changes in extracellular environment Structural support Selectively permeable Consist of protein Consist of phospholipid bilayer

Name and describe two types of proteins found in plasma membrane

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Integral proteins – span plasma membrane Peripheral proteins – bound to inner and outer surface of membrane

Cytoplasm consists of

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Cytosol and organelles

Cytosol consists of

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Intracellular fluid Nutrients Ions Waste products Proteins

An organelle is a structure that

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Is suspended within the cytosol and performs a specific function

Organelles Free ribosomes – synthesise proteins for release into cytosol Fixed ribosomes – synthesise proteins and pass them to rough ER Rough ER – modifies/packages new proteins Smooth ER – synthesise lipids and carbs Mitochondria – generate ATP Golgi apparatus – storage, alteration and packing of secretory products Microvilli – increase surface area Which organelle contact nuclear envelope

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Rough ER

Organelle located on rough ER

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Fixed ribosomes

Function of cytoskeleton

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Strength, support and movement of cellular structures and materials

What is the function of the nucleus

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Control centre for cellular operations Controls cell metabolism, storage and processing of genetic information Controls protein synthesis

True or false, all somatic cells contain 1 nucleus

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False, most contain one but some contain no and some contain many

Protein synthesis

Transport of molecules active or passive

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Whether energy is required to transport molecules across membrane Passive – no energy Active – requires cell to expend ATP

Passive and active transport

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Passive Diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis Active Exchange pump Exocytosis and endocytosis

Role of integral proteins in facilitated diffusion

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Integral proteins bind to specific ions or organic substances and carry them across the plasma membrane down the gradient

What is a vesicle

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A small membranous sac containing a substance, fusion of vesicle to membrane enables bulk transport of substances in or out of cell

Link between golgi and exocytosis

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A vesicle carried modified protein form golgi to membrane to be released into extracellular space

Intracellular communication

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Communication between cells

Four types of intracellular communication

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Endocrine – hormone Synaptic - neurotransmitter Paracrine – paracrine factor Direct

Function of mitosis on adults

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Replace damages cells or those which have undergone apoptosis

Types of tissues

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Connective, epithelium, muscles and nervous

Glands contains which type

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Epithelial

Functions of the tissues

Connective tissues consists of

- Specialized cells, extracellular protein fibres and ground substance Classification of connective tissues

Epithelial tissues consists of

Major organs of the integumentary system

- Skin hair sweat glands and nails Function of integumentary system

- Protect against environmental hazards - Excretion of sale, water, organic wastes - Maintain of body temp - Syntheses of vitamin D 2 major part of integumentary system - cutaneous membrane and accessory structures Epidermis consist of

- Stratified squamous epithelial cells - Keratinocytes and melanocytes Topic 3 skeletal system Major organs of skeletal system

- Bones, cartilage and ligaments Skeletal system connective tissue

- Dense connective proper – ligaments - Supporting connective – cartligae and bones Functions

- Protection - Support - Mineral storage - Blood cell production - Leverage - Lipid storage Bone matrix consists of

- Extracellular protein fibres ground substance and inorganic compounds Fours types of bone cells

What is an osteon

- Basic functional unit of a mature compact bone, osteons contain osteocytes that are arranges in a concentric pattern Name of the meshwork of supporting fibres of spongy bone

- Trabecukalae Where red bone marrow is found in adults

- Within epiphyses of long and large bones Marrow

- Red bone marrow – produces red blood cells - Yellow bone marrow – contain adipose tissues (fat) Types of ossification

- Endochondrial – most bones, involves replacing hyaline cartilage with bone - Intramembranous – only occurs in clavicles, mandible and flat bones of skull Exercise leads to

- Increase bone production by osteoblast Two hormones that act on bone regulation

- Calcitonin – thyroid gland - Parathyroid hormone – parathyroid gland Name of cell found in cartilage

- Chrondrocytes Most abundant type of fibre in ligaments

- Collagen fibres – aligned parallel to direction of force applied to tissue Topic 4 nervous system Elements and functions of a neuron

Types of neurons

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Sensory, motor and interneuron

Regions with high density of neurol cell bodies and axons

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High bodies – ganglion, nuclei and gray matter High axons – nerve and white matter

Function of neuroglial cells

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Support and protect neurons

Types of neuroglial cells

Produce myelin

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Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and schwann (PNS)

Passive leak channels direction of flow at rest

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Sodium ion leak into cell and potassium ions leak out

Sodium-potassium exchange pump flow direction at rest

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Sodium ion are pumped from cytosol to extracellular fluid and potassium ion are pumped from extracellular fluid into cytosol

Three types of active gates channels

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Chemically – chemical Voltage – change in voltage Mechanically – change in cell membrane

Events of change in membrane potential during an action potential

Neurotransmitter removed by

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Degrades in synaptic cleft or recycled by presynaptic neuron

Four major structures of CNS and their function

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Cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem and spinal cord

Brain stem major parts

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Bid brain, pons and medulla oblongata

Nerve pathways

Sympathetic, parasympathetic, somatic and autonomic

Topic 5 muscular system Characteristics of each muscle cell

Types of muscle tissues uses aerobic metabolism as energy

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Skeletal (slow fibres only), cardiac and smooth muscle Aerobic metabolism is what makes thee tissues fatigue resistant

In comparison to cells the equalvalent to the membrane and cytoplasm would be

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Sarcoplasm and sarcolemma

Components of skeletal muscles and description

Muscles cells factors

Proteins on myofilaments

Two proteins that bind to form a cross bridge

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Actin and myosin

How the sliding filament = muscle contraction

Process of excitation-contraction coupling

Process of muscles contraction

Muscle contraction stops when

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ACh no longer present in synaptic cleft and neuromuscular junction

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Ca2+ no longer present in cytosol All ross bridges have detached

Factors influence tension produce by single skeletal muscle

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Sarcomere length Stimulation frequency

Factors that influence whole muscle tension

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Number of active motor units Type of muscle fibres present Type of contraction Speed of muscle contraction and relation Duration and intensity of contraction Joint angle Availability of energy sources for contraction

ATP production

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Energy relasead when high energy bond is severed during conversion of ATP into ADP

Energy sources

Energy sources used for different muscle types

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Fast fibres – glycogen, anerobic Slow fibres – glycogen, aerobic Intermediate – glycogen (mainly anerobic)

Topic 6 endocrine system A hormone is

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A chemical secreted by one cell and travel through the blood stream to affect the activity of specific cells in another part of the body

Cellular communication within same tissues

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Paracrine

Organs in the endocrine system

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Thyroid gland Parathyroid gland Adrenal gland Pancreatic islats Gonads

General function of endocrine system

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Adjusts metabolic activity use by the body Controls many structural and functional changes during development

Classes of hromones

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Amino acid derivatives, lipid derivative and peptide hormones

Lipohillic hormones

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Bind to intracellular receptors in target cells and modifies the activity of the target cell by changing genetic activity

Hydrophilic hormones

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Bind to receptors on plasma membrane of target cell modifying target cell by altering permeability of membrane or activating or inactivating enzymes done by thousands of second messengers linked by a G protein

Series of events that occur inside target cell after hormone binding

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Signal transduction

Active and non active hormones

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Freely circulating hormone is the active form of hormone Bound hormone are inactive

Factors affecting plasma concentration

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Rate of hormone secretion by endocrine cells Extent of binding to plasma proteins Extent of binding to target cells Rate of removal from blood by metabolic inactivation and excretion

Position of hypothalamus

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Superior to pituitary gland In diencephalon Adjacent to the thalamus

Hypothalamus integrates NS and endocrine by

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Neurons in the my hypothalamus release 2 hormones via posterior pituitary gland Hypothalamus secrete regulatory hormones that control endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary gland Hypothalamus exerts neural control over endocrine cell in adrenal gland

Anterior and posterior over of pituitary gland Anterior – ACTH and TSH Posterior – oxytocin and ADH Anterior lobe and pituitary gland controls

Adrenal gland hormones Cortex; glucocorticoids, androgens, mineralocorticoids Medulla; noradrenaline, adrenaline Adrenaline and noradrenaline controlled

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Adrenal medulla secretes is under direct neural control by hypothalamus

Role of adrenal gland in response to stress

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Sympathetic nervous system provides direct neural stimulation to many tissues and it stimulates the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream. Both processes evoke rapid fight or flight responses in the body such as increase HR and blood pressure and energy use and mental alertness

Role of HPA axis in response to stress

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Involved in the resistance phase of stress response and activation of this pathway leads to increased secretion of cortisol into the bloodstream

Function of cortisol

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Alters glucose metabolism and inhibits activity of the immune system

Two hormones of the thyroid gland

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T3 and T4, stiulate increased ATP production within target cells which lead to generation of heat

Thyroid negative feedback

Stimulation of C cells in thyroid gland

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High concentration of calcium ions in blood

Calcitonin effects

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Inhibits osteoclasts which leads to more calcium being stored in bone

Stimulates parathyroid gland to release hormones

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Low concentration of calcium ions in blood

Effect of parathyroid hormone

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Stimulates osteoclasts leasing to calcium release from bone Decreases excretion of calcium by kidneys Increases release of the hormone calcitriol from kidneys which increases absorption of calcium in the intestines

Types of cells in pancreatic islets

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Alpha (glucagon) and beta (insulin)

Glucose homeostasis

effects of insulin

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Increased amino acid absorption Increased protein synthesis Increase triglyceride synthesis in adipose tissue Increased breakdown of fat to fatty acids

Diabetes

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Type 1 there is inadequate secretion of insulin Type 2 secretion of insulin is relatively normal but the response of the target cell to insulin is reduced

Two hormone secreted by kidneys

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Calcitriol – calcium homeostasis Erythropoietin – red blood cell production

Stimulation of kidneys

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Low Ca2+ levels in the blood stimulate secretion of calcitriol Low oxygen level in kidneys tissues stimulate secretion of erythropoietin

Movement of fluid through the kidney

Effect of calcitriol on intestines

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Increases rate of calcium absorption from food

Calcium homeostasis

Adrenaline in response to stress

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Secretion of adrenaline and nor adrenaline occurs in the alarm phase of stress, activation of sympathetic nervous system leads to release of adrenaline and noradrenaline from neurons at certain chemical synapses and from the adrenal medulla

Functions of adrenaline and noradrenaline

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Increased HR Increase blood pressure Increased glucose metabolism

Occurs during resistance phase of stress response

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Pancreas releases glucagon Adrenal gland releases glucocorticoids Adrenal gland releases mineralocorticoids

Metabolic adjustment occurring resistance phase of stress response

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Mobilization of remaining energy reserves Conservation of glucose Elevation of blood glucose concentration Conservation of slats and water

Topic 7 cardio vascular system

Function of blood

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Transport dissolved gasses and nutrients Transport hormones Transport waste products Regulation of PH and ions Defense against toxins and pathogens Maintenance of body temp and blood volume

Components of blood

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Formed elements (RBC WBC and platelets) and plasma

Plasma consist of

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Water, plasma proteins, other solutes

RBC characterises

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Selectively permeable Contain haemoglobin Large SA to volume ratio Can change shape

Suited to carry oxygen.

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Size Shape Lack of mitochondria

Production and simulation of RBC

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Erythropoiesis ; erythropoietin (EPO)

Release of EPO by kidneys stimulated by

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decreased level in blood

surface antigens

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proteins on plasma membrane that identify cell to immune system A and B are the types of surface antigens

White blood cells

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Platelets Osteocytes Neutrophils Melanocytes Lymphocytes Keratinocytes Erythrocytes

Function of platelets

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Release important clotting chemical, temporarily patch damages vessel walls and actively contract tissue after clot formation

Phases of blood clotting

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Vascular phase Platelet phase Coagulation phase

Unique characteristic of pacemaker cells

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Automaticity – ability to generate an action potential automatically without requiring commands from NS Conductivity – ability to pass the action potential onto next cardia cell

Characteristics of cardiac muscles

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Connected to adjacent cardiac muscle cells via intercalated discs, which are a type of gap junction that enables movement of ions between cells thus transmission of action potentially between cells

Cardiac cycle

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Atrial systole – atria contraction forcing blood into ventricles through AV valves Atrial diastole Ventricular systole – pressure increases in ventricles closing AV valves then opening the semilunar valves ejecting blood into the pulmonary and systemic circuit Ventricular diastole

Heart sounds

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S1 Lub – closure of atrioventricular valves S2 Dub – closure of semilunar valves

Cardio dynamic terms

Cardia output formula

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Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume

Blood vessels tunica

Differences in arteries and veins

Structural features of capillaries

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Exchange substances between blood and tissues, nutrients and oxygen diffuse from blood to tissues whereas waste products and CO2 diffuse from tissues to blood, the endothelial lining consist of simple squamous epithelium which is well suites to exchange of molecules

Blood pressure refers to

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Arterial pressure Pressure in arterial system pushing blood through capillary beds Expressed as systolic pressure over diastolic pressure

Pulse pressure

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Differences between systolic and diastolic pressure

Factors determining blood pressure

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Blood flow and peripheral resistance

Autoregulation

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Local adjustment within given tissue Occurs in response to changes in o2 and co2 levels Involves contraction of smooth muscle capillaries

Cardiovascular control centre

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Medulla oblongata

Arterial blood is monitored by

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Receptors located in aortic and carotid sinuses

Carbon dioxide or monitored by

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Receptors in aortic and carotid bodies

Reflex involved in monitoring stretch in aortic and carotid sinuses

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Baroreceptor reflex

Reflex involved in monitoring receptors for pH in aortic and carotid bodies

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Chemoreceptor reflex

Short term and long term cardiovascular regulation

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Short – noradrenaline/norepinephrine and adrenaline/epinephrine Long – angiotensin II, erythropoietin, natriuretic peptide, ADH

Hormones increase Blood pressure

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Adrenaline ADH (increase volume) Noradrenaline Angiotensin II (increase volume)

Topic 8 urinary system Kidneys blood supply

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Renal artery

Functions of the kidney

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Excre...