Lab exam 1 objectives - endocrine system, reproductive system, meiosis, genetics, heredity, blood and PDF

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endocrine system, reproductive system, meiosis, genetics, heredity, blood and blood cells...

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OBJECTIVES FOR LAB EXAM 1 UNIT 1 1. Name selected hormones produced by each endocrine gland. For each hormone, locate it’s target organ and describe it’s biological location. CHART on green paper from exam 1!!! 2. Structure and function of testes a. Function- produce sperm and androgens (male sex hormones) b. Covered by serous membrane (tunica vaginalis) i. Tunica vaginalis has outer parietal layer and inner visceral layer c. Tunica albuginea- white fibrous capsule that covers the testis and lies deep to the visceral layer of tunica vaginalis i. Projects internally into testis and forms delicate CT septa(divides space into lobules) ii. Each lobule contains 4 seminiferous tubules that contain 2 types of cells- group of nondividing support cells (sustentacular cells) and a population of dividing germ cells that continuously replicate and develop into sperm beginning at puberty iii. Sustentacular cells- provide protective environment for developing sperm and their cytoplasm helps nourish developing sperm. Release inhibin. d. Mediastinum testis- at the posterior margin of testis, projects into the organ. Blood vessels, a system of ducts, and some nerves enter/leave each testis within this. e. Spaces surrounding seminiferous tubules called interstitial spaces with interstitial cells. LH stimulates the interstitial cells to produce androgens (testosterone) 3. Structure and function of ducts of reproductive system a. Function of duct system as a whole- store and transport sperm as they mature and pass out of male body b. Rete testis- in testis. Receive sperm from seminiferous tubules via straight tubules. Channels merge to form the efferent ductules c. Efferent ductules- connect rete testis to epididymis. Ciliated columnar epithelia that propel sperm toward epididymis and nonciliated that absorb excess fluid. Drain into epididymis d. Epididymis- lies on testis. Stores sperm until they are fully mature and capable of being motile e. Ductus deferens- sperm enter this when they leave the epididymis during ejaculation. Located w/in spermatic cord. f. Ejaculatory duct- conducts sperm from the ductus deferens and seminal fluid from the seminal vesicle toward the urethra. Opens into prostatic urethra g. Urethra- transports semen from ejaculatory ducts to the outside of the body. i. Prostatic- extends from bladder through prostate gland ii. Membranous- continues through urogenital diaphragm iii. Spongy- extends through penis

4. Structure and function of glands of reproductive system a. Seminal vesicles- secrete viscous, whitish-yellow, alkaline fluid containing both fructose and prostaglandins. Fructose nourishes sperm as they travel through female reproductive tract and prostaglandins promote widening and slight dilation of the external ox of cervix (facilitates sperm entry into the uterus) b. Prostate gland- includes submucosal glands that produce mucin and tubuloalveolar glands that open directly through numerous ducts into the prostatic urethra. Together they aggregate of secretory structures contributes a component to seminal fluid i. Secretes slightly milk, weakly acidic, rich in citric acid (for sperm health), seminalplasmin (combats UTI), and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) (helps liquefy semen after ejaculation) c. Bulbourethral gland- produce a clear, viscous mucin that forms mucus that coats and lubricates the urethra for the passage of sperm 5. Location, structure, and function of ovaries a. Held in place by ligaments b. Germinal epithelium- thin, simple cuboidal epithelial layer that surrounds ovary c. Tunica albuginea- deep to the germinal epithelium, dense CT capsule d. Cortex- outer part of ovary, contains highly cellular CT and ovarian follicles e. Medulla- inner part of ovary, composed of areolar connective tissue and contains branches of ovarian blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves 6. Location, structure, and function of uterine tubes a. Function- transport ovulated oocyte to the uterus and are the site of fertilization of an oocyte b. Covered and suspended by the mesosalpinx (specific superior part of broad ligament of uterus) c. Each tube consists of following segments i. Infundibulum- free, funnel-shaped, lateral margin of uterine tube. Fingerlike folds (fimbriae) envelop the ovary only at the time of ovulation. ii. Ampulla- expanded region medial to infundibulum. Fertilization of oocyte occurs here. iii. Isthmus- constricted region that extends medially from ampulla toward lateral wall of uterus, 1/3 length of uterine tube iv. Uterine part- extends medially from isthmus and penetrates wall of uterus d. Wall of uterine tube consists of a mucosa, a Muscularis, and serosa i. Mucosa- after ovulation, cilia on the apical surface of the epithelial cells of both infundibulum and ampulla begin to beat in the direction of the uterus. Causes slight current in the fluid w/in uterine tube lumen, drawing oocyte into uterine tube and moving it toward uterus. ii. Muscularis- some peristaltic contractions help propel the oocyte through uterine tube towards uterus

7. Location, structure, and function of uterus, and 3 tunics a. Functions i. Following fertilization, pre-embryo makes contact with uterine lining and implants in inner uterine wall. ii. Uterus supports, protects, and nourishes developing embryo/fetus by forming vascular connect that later develops into placenta iii. Uterus ejects fetus at birth after maternal oxytocin levels increase to initiate uterine contractions of labor b. 3 tunics i. Perimetrium- outer tunic, serosa, continuous with broad ligament ii. Myometrium- thick, middle tunic, formed with 3 intertwining layers of smooth muscle iii. Endometrium- innermost, intricate mucosa, composed of simple columnar epithelium and an underlying lamina propria (filled with compound tubular glands which enlarge during uterine cycle) b. Two layers- basal layer (permanent, few changes) and functional layer (under influence of estrogen and progesterone secreted from ovarian follicles. Functional layer is shed if fertilization/implantation doesn’t occur). Basal layer gives rise to new functional layer after the end of each menses 8. Location, structure, and function of vagina a. Copulatory organ. Functions as birth canal. Serves as passageway for menstruation. b. Wall consists of 3 tunics: i. Mucosa- inner layer ii. Muscularis- middle iii. Adventitia- outer 9. Meiosis a. Sex cell division that starts off with a diploid parent cell and produces haploid daughter cells (gametes) b. Interphase- cell increases in size and replicate its DNA c. Prophase I- chromosomes visible, centrioles to opposite poles, and nucleus dissolves. i. Crossing over- genetic material is exchanged between maternal and paternal chromosomes, shuffling of genetic materials that increases genetic diversity ii. Synapsis- pairing up of homologous maternal and paternal replicated chromosomes d. Metaphase I- homologous chromosome pairs line up at the equator, one to each side. Alignment done randomly i. Independent assortment- homologous pairs of each tetrad line up on either side of equator or fell in a random alignment e. Anaphase I- homologous chromosomes separate, 1 from each pair is pulled by spindle fibers to each pole f. Telophase I- as the chromosomes reach opposite poles, new nuclear membranes form around them. i. Cytokinesis separates cell into two haploid cells g. Interkinesis- similar to interphase but no DNA replication

h. Prophase II- chromosomes remain visible, centrioles move to each pole, and nucleus dissolve i. Metaphase II- chromosomes line up on equator in a thin, vertical line in the middle of the spindle j. Anaphase II- chromosomes split into 2 separate sister chromatids, each moving to an opposite poles k. Telophase II- chromatids arrive at each pole and new nuclear membrane forms i. Cytokinesis- produces 2 daughter cells each (4 total) 10. Meiosis vs. mitosis a. Mitosis traits- produces 2 daughter cells that are genetically identical to parent cell, produces diploid cells, somatic cell division b. Meiosis traits- produces 4 daughter cells that are genetically different from parent cell, produces haploid cells, includes crossing over, 23 chromosomes from mother and 23 from father c. Common traits- both have centromeres and chromosomes, both involve cell division, both consist of same stages (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis)

UNIT 2 1. Allele- variants of one gene found at the same locus on homologous chromosomes. Inherit 1 from each parents for a combo of 2 alleles that determines expression of a particular trait 2. Phenotype vs genotype a. Phenotype- physical expression of genotype (widow’s peak, straight hairline) b. Genotype- genetic makeup of an individual (WW, Ww, or ww) 3. Determination of genetic sex a. Sex-linked traits are expressed by genes on the X and Y chromosomes b. X-linked recessive traits are always expressed in male offspring, whereas female offspring are typically a carrier and don’t exhibit any phenotypic effects. c. X-linked dominant traits may be exhibited in both males and females, but typically males experience more severe effects 4. Dominant/recessive inheritance with incomplete dominance and codominance a. Strict dominant-recessive inheritance- dominant allele is always expressed in the phenotype, regardless of whether the individual is homozygous or heterozygous for that trait b. Incomplete dominance- phenotype of two heterozygous alleles is intermediate between the phenotypes of homozygous dominant or recessive alleles. i. Three possible phenotypes- produced by homozygous dominant alleles, produced by homozygous recessive alleles, and produced by heterozygous alleles c. Codominant inheritance- when 2 or more alleles appear to be equally dominant, both alleles are expressed in phenotype

d. Polygenic inheritance- when multiple genes interact to produce a phenotypic trait 5. Techniques used to determine/predict genetic diseases- LAB 6. Construct pedigrees and Punnett squares- LAB 7. Composition/characteristics of blood. Blood is a connective tissue that can be described based on its physical characteristics, in the following ways: a. b. c. d. e. f.

Color- whether it’s oxygen rich or poor Volume- 4-5 L in females, 5-6 L in males Viscosity- thick Plasma concentration Temperature – 100.4 degrees F Blood pH- slightly alkaline

8. Classes, characteristics, and functions of leukocytes a. Function-defend body against pathogens, motile and flexible. b. Two classes based on visible presence or absence of secretory vesicles called specific granules: c. Granulocytes i. Neutrophils- multilobed nucleus, cytosol contains neural specific granules 1. Function- phagocytize pathogens (especially bacteria) and release enzymes that target pathogens ii. Eosinophils- bilobed nucleus, cytosol contains reddish or pink-orange specific granules 1. Function- phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes and allergens, release chemical mediators to destroy parasitic worms iii. Basophils- bilobed nucleus, cytosol contains deep blue-violet specific granules 1. Function- release histamine and heparin d. Agranulocytes i. Lymphocytes- round of slightly indented nucleus that’s darkly stained, thin rim of cytosol around nucleus 1. Function- coordinate immune cell activity, attack pathogens/ abnormal and infected cells, produce antibodies ii. Monocytes- C shaped nucleus that’s pale staining, abundant cytosol around nucleus 1. Function- exit blood vessels and become macrophages, phagocytize pathogens, cellular fragments, dead cells, debris 9. Identify structures microscopically (pictures on other page) a. Red blood cells, basophils, eosinophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, and neutrophils 10. Procedure/significance of hematocrit, white blood cell count, total red blood cell count, and ABO and Rh blood typing.

a. Hematocrit- percentage of the volume of all formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets) in the blood i. Clinical hematocrit- percentage of only erythrocytes ii. An elevated hematocrit may indicate that the patient is either dehydrated or participating in blood doping. Lower hematocrit often suggests the patient is suffering from anemia b. White blood cell count i. Normally ranges between 4500 and 11,000 ii. Having a high or low number of WBCs may indicate an underlying position iii. Symptoms of low WBC count- body aches, fever, chills, headaches iv. Symptoms of high WBC count- not too many symptoms, although the underlying conditions causing the high count may cause their own symptoms c. Total red blood cell count i. This is important because RBCs contain hemoglobin, which carries oxygen to your body’s tissue ii. Symptoms of low RBC count- fatigue, SOB, dizziness, weakness, lightheadedness, increased HR, headaches, pale skin iii. Symptoms of low RBC count- fatigue, SOB, joint pain, tenderness in palms or soles of feet, itching skin, sleep disturbance d. ABO and Rh blood typing i. ABO surface antigens 1. Type A- only surface antigen A 2. Type B- only surface antigen B 3. Type AB- both surface antigens A and B 4. Type O- neither surface antigen A or B ii. Antibodies within the blood plasma 1. Type A- anti-B antibodies 2. Type B- anti-A antibodies 3. Type AB- neither anti-A or anti-B antibodies 4. Type O- both anti-A and anti-B antibodies iii. Rh factor- when it’s present, Rh+. When it’s negative Rh1. Usually reported with blood type. (ex- AB+, O-)...