Lab Practical Final Review PDF

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this is a review for the final lab practical for Human A&P II. ...

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Lab Final Exam Review Lymphatic System 1. Identify the major lymphatic ducts and regions of the body drained by each. ● Right Lymphatic Duct: right upper extremity, head, thorax delivered by the jugular, subclavian and bronchomediastinal trunks. ● Thoracic Duct: receives lymph from the rest of the body 2. Describe the composition and formation of the lymph, and discuss how it is transported through the lymphatic vessels. ● Lymph is composed of white blood cells ● One-way system; carries lymph only towards the heart ● Since the lymphatic system is a pumpless system, lymph transport depends largely on the milking action of the skeletal muscles & on pressure changes within the thorax that occur during breathing ●

It is the microscopic, blind ended lymphatic capillaries, which branch through nearly all the tissues of the body, that pick up this leaked fluid & carry it through successively larger vessels – collecting lymphatic vessels to lymphatic trunks – until the lymph finally returns to the blood vascular system through one of the two large ducts in the thoracic region

3. Describe the function of the Lymphatic System ● Transports tissue fluid (lymph) to the blood vessels ● Protects the body by removing foreign material such as bacteria from the lymphatic stream & by serving as a site for lymphocyte “policing” of body fluids & for lymphocyte multiplication 4. Compare and contrast its function with that of the blood vascular system ● Like veins of the blood vascular system, the collecting lymphatic vessels have 3 tunics & are equipped with valves. However, lymphatics tend to be thinner-walled, to have more valves, & to anastomose (form branching networks) more than veins.

5. Identify its components on a model/ figure

6. Function of the parts of the Lymphatic system ● Lymphatic capillaries ○ smallest of lymphatic vessels, spread out thru all tissue picking up leaking fluid ● Collecting vessels ○ larger than lymphatic capillaries, capillaries feed into these, transporting lymph ● Lymphatic Trunks ○ larger than lymphatic collecting vessels, vessels feed into these, transporting lymph ● Lymph nodes ○ bean shaped secondary lymphatic organs, filter the lymph - anything foreign gets destroyed by macrophages in here ● Tonsils ○ Filter and destroy pathogens, just large lymph nodes ● Thymus ○ after being made in the red bone marrow, final maturation of T cells happens here - if they attack self, they are destroyed ● Spleen ○ filters the blood & lymph, phagocytosis of red blood cells also

happens here ● Appendix ○ Filter lymph ● peyer’s patches ○ lymphoid nodules in small intestine ● cisterna chyli ○ receives lymph from the digestive organs 7. Describe the role of memory, specificity, and differentiation of self from nonself in immune response ● Not only does the immune system have a “memory” for previously encountered foreign antigens, but this memory is also remarkably accurate & highly specific ● Each immunocompetent lymphocyte has receptors on its surface allowing it to bind with only one or a few very similar antigens, thus providing specificity ● As a rule, our own proteins are tolerated, a fact that reflects the ability of the immune system to distinguish our own tissues (self) from foreign antigens (nonself) 8. Differentiate between the roles of T cells and B cells in the immune response B cells: plasma cells produce antibodies that inactivate antigen & tag antigen for destruction ● T cells: Cytotoxic T cells attack infected cells & tumor cells. Helper T cells activate B cells & other T cells.

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9. Describe the process of clonal selection ● Clonal selection is triggered when an antigen binds to the specific cellsurface receptors of a T or B cell. This event causes the lymphocyte to proliferate rapidly, forming a clone of like cells, all bearing the same antigen-specific receptors. Then, in the presence of certain regulator signals, the members of the clone specialize, or differentiate – some form memory cells, & others become effector or regulatory cells. 10. Describe the relationship between antibodies and antigens. ● An antibody is produced by B cells and their plasma cell offspring in response to an antigen. ● An antigen is 11. Identify the four protein chain structure of an immunoglobulin (antibody)

monomer (two heavy chains and two light chains each with a variable and a constant region). ● ● ● ●

Heavy chain variable region Heavy chain constant region Light chain variable region Light chain constant region

Respiratory System 1. Identify the upper respiratory structures on models and diagrams

2. Describe their functions ● External Nose- nostrils provide an entrance for air into the respiratory system ● Nasal Septum- divides the nasal cavity into left and right sides ● Paranasal sinuses- act as resonance chambers for speech; warm and moisten incoming air ● Nasal cavity- functions to filter, warm and moisten incoming air; resonance chambers for voice productions ● Nasal conchae- increase the surface area of the mucosa, which enhances air turbulence and airs in trapping large particles ● Nasal Vestibule- filters coarse particles from the air ● Nasopharynx- provides for the passage of air from the nasal cavity, tonsils in the region provide protection against pathogens ● Pharyngotympanic tube- allows the middle ear pressure to equalize with the atmospheric pressure ● Oropharynx - Provides for the passage of air and swallowed food, tonsils

provide protection against pathogens ● Laryngopharynx- Provides for the passage of air and swallowed food 3. Identify lower respiratory structures on a model

4. Describe what structures belong to the respiratory zone and what belongs to the conducting zone. Describe the difference between the functions of the zones. ● Respiratory Zone- allow inhaled oxygen to diffuse into the lung capillaries in exchange for carbon dioxide ● Conducting Zone- passageway for air to move in and out of the lungs Structures ● Respiratory Zone Structures ○ Nose ○ Nasal cavity ○ Respiratory ○ Pharynx bronchiole ○ Mouth ○ Alveolar duct ○ Larynx ○ Alveoli ○ Trachea ○ Lungs ● Conducting Zone 5. What is the bronchial tree? What occurs at the respiratory membrane? ● The branching system of bronchi and bronchioles conducting air from the

windpipe into the lungs ● Gas exchange between the air and blood occurs at the respiratory membrane 6. State the major functions of gas exchange ● To supply body with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide 7. Describe the 4 distinct processes of respiration: ● Pulmonary Ventilation: tidelike movement of air into and out of the lungs that allows gases to be continuously changed and refreshed breath ● External Respiration: gas exchange between the blood and the air filled chambers of the lungs ● Internal Respiration: exchange of gases between systemic blood and tissue cells ● Transport of respiratory gases: the transport of respiratory gases between the lungs and tissue cells of the body using blood as the transport vehicle 8. Describe the structure and function of the pleura, and identify the parietal pleura, visceral pleura, the pleural cavity, mediastinum and cardiac notch ● Pleura- aids optimal functioning of the lungs during breathing, The pleural cavity also contains pleural fluid, which acts as a lubricant and allows the pleurae to slide effortlessly against each other during respiratory movements.

9. Define: ● Inspiration- inhaling ● Expiration- exhaling ● tidal volume- amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting conditions ● vital capacity- maximum amount of air that can be expired after a maximum inspiratory effort ● expiratory reserve volume- amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume expiration ● inspiratory reserve volume- amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inspiration ● residual volume- amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration ● Interpret spirometry readings. (Figure 37.2) *Know typical values for the volumes/capacities ○ Respiratory Volume ■ Tidal Volume- 500 ml ■ Inspiratory reserve volume- 3100 ml/ 1900 ml ■ Expiratory reserve volume- 1200 ml/ 700 ml ■ Residual volume- 1200 ml/ 1100 ml ○ Respiratory Capacities ■ Total Lung capacity- 6000 ml/ 4200 ml ■ Vital Capacity- 4800 ml/ 3100 ml ■ Inspiratory Capacity- 3600 ml/ 2400 ml ■ Functional residual capacity- 2400 ml/ 1800 ml

Digestive System 1. Identify the organs of the alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs, their anatomical features, and histological structures on models, figures and slides, and describe the function of each

● Alimentary canal: ○ Stomach: ■ Rugae- numerous folds of the stomach which allow the stomach to be able to expand ■ gastroesophageal junction- junction between stomach and esophagus ■ Fundus- upper portion of stomach ■ Lesser and greater curvature- ???? ■ pyloric sphincter- circular muscle that controls the movement of chyme from the stomach to the small intestine ■ pyloric canal- opening to duodenum ■ gastric pits- indentations in stomach that denote entrances ■ gastric glands- produce bulk of digestive substances secreted by stomach ■ gastric pits- contain many exocrine cells that secrete digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid into the lumen, or hollow region, of the stomach. ○ Small intestine: ■ Duodenum- first portion of the small intestine which receives secretions from the gallbladder and pancreas ■ Jejunum - second portion of the small intestine where most chemical digestion is completed ■ Ileum- last and longest portion of the small intestine where most absorption takes place ■ ileocecal valve- sphincter separating the small and large intestine ■ Villi- finger like projections of the mucosa tunic that give it a velvety appearance and texture ■ microvilli- microscopic projections of the surface plasma membrane of the columnar epithelial lining cells of the mucosa ○ Large intestine: ■ Cecum- first part of the large intestine where appendix is attached ■ ascending colon- carries feces from the cecum superiorly along the right side of our abdominal cavity to the transverse colon ■ transverse colon- bacteria further breaks down the food matter in a process called fermentation, water and nutrients are removed, and feces form ■ descending colon- is to store the remains of digested food that will be emptied into the rectum ■ sigmoid colon- store fecal wastes until they are ready to leave the body

■ Rectum- lower part of the large intestine where feces are stored ■ anal canal- lubricate and transmit fecal matter as it passes from the rectum to outside of body, helps regulate defecation and maintain continence which refers to voluntary control over discharging the feces ■ vermiform appendix- ???? ■ teniae coli- contract and produce the bulges in the colon ■ Haustra- give colon its appearance, small pouches ■ Mesentery- continuous set of tissues that attaches to abdominal wall ■ greater omentum- to deposit fats, limit infections, delivery of WBC to fight infections in certain regions, contributes to the immune system ■ lesser omentum- ??? ● Accessory organs: ○ Oral cavity: ■ Mouth- Lined with stratified squamous epithelium ■ Tongue- moves food during chewing and swallowing; changes shape and position for speech ■ Hard palate- prevents movement of food and fluids from oral cavity into nasal cavity ■ Soft palate- moves during swallowing, preventing food and fluids from entering nasopharynx ■ Gingivae - It resists friction of food during mastication by being tightly bound to the underlying bone ■ Submandibular duct- secrete saliva ■ Uvula- During swallowing, the soft palate and the uvula move together to close off the nasopharynx, and prevent food from entering the nasal cavity. It has also been proposed that the large amounts of thin saliva produced by the uvula serves to keep the throat well lubricated. It has a function in speech as well ■ Palatine and Lingual tonsils- composed of lymphatic tissue that functions to assist the immune system in the production of antibodies in response to invading pathogenic bacteria or viruses. ■ Epiglottis- close off trachea so food doesn't go down windpipe ■ Glottis- vocal apparatus ■ Esophagus- passageway for food and fluids ○ Salivary glands: ■ parotid gland- the largest gland and is located below the ear, produces 50% of daytime saliva, produces serous secretions ONLY, Stensen's duct conveys saliva into the mouth at the inner surface of the cheek

■ submandibular gland- found below the mandible in the mouth father back from the sublingual gland, produces the most saliva volume, forms a tube that opens into Wharton's duct, produces both serous and mucous secretory products ■ sublingual gland- found under the tongue, anterior region of the floor of the mouth, the smallest salivary gland shaped like an Almond, produces mucous secretions, lies on the Mylohyoid muscle via the Bartholin's duct ○ Other Structures ■ Pharynx (Naso-, oro-, and layngo-)- passageway for food, fluids, and air ■ Pancreas- secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate solution ■ Pancreatic duct- duct to supply pancreatic juice provided from the exocrine pancreas, which aids in digestion ■ Liver- produces bile and performs many non digestive functions ■ Gallbladder- stores bile ■ cystic duct- bile passageway ■ common hepatic duct- bile passageway ■ bile duct- bile passageway ■ hepatopancreatic ampulla- The bile duct and pancreatic ducts enter the wall of the duodenum where they form a bulb called the hepatopancreatic ampulla ■ major duodenal ampulla- the common entrance in the duodenum for the bile and pancreatic ducts ■ hepatopancreatic sphincter- The sphincter of Oddi, controls flow of digestive juices

2. Describe the basic structural pattern of the alimentary canal wall: Mucosa, Submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa, *and components of all of these

● Mucosa: ● Function: secretion of mucus, digestive enzymes and hormones; absorption of end products into the blood; protection against infectious disease ○ Epithelium ■ Stratified squamous epithelium in the mouth, esophagus and anus; simple columnar epithelium in the remainder of the canal ○ Lamina propria ■ Areolar connective tissue with blood vessels; many lymphoid follicles, especially as tonsils and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) ○ Muscularis mucosae ■ A thin layer of smooth muscle ● Submucosa: ● Function: Blood Vessels absorb and transport nutrients. Elastic fibers help maintain the shape of each organ ■ Areolar and dense irregular connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerve fibers ● Muscularis Externa: ● Function: segmentation and peristalsis of digested food along the tract are regulated by the myenteric nerve plexus

○ Circular Layer ■ Inner layer of smooth muscle ○ Longitudinal Layer ■ Outer layer of smooth muscle ● Serosa: ● Function: Reduces friction as the digestive system organs slide across one another ○ Connective Tissue ■ Areolar connective tissue ○ Epithelium ■ Simple squamous epithelium

3. Observe the Peritoneal attachments of the abdominal organs

4. Describe the composition of a portal triad of the liver, and describe the function of each vessel/component. ● Portal Triad: ○ Portal Arteriole- branch of the hepatic artery, the functional blood supply of the liver ○ Portal Venule- branch of the hepatic portal vein carrying nutrientrich blood from the digestive viscera ○ Bile Duct- carries bile products away from the hepatocytes, to the larger ducts and gallbladder

Describe the flow of blood and nutrients in the tissues of the tissues of the liver, as well as the role/location of macrophages

5. Identify all deciduous and adult teeth and their anatomical structures: ● Crown

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Neck Root Enamel Dentin Pulp Gingivae cement Root Canal Periodontal Attachment

6. Describe the digestion of the four major food macromolecules/foodstuffs ● Carbohydrate Digestion (^)

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Protein Digestion

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Fat Digestion

● Nucleic acid digestion

7. Define ● Enzyme: large proteins molecules produced by body cells ● Catalyst: they increase the rate of chemical reaction without themselves becoming part of the product ● Substrate: molecules on which they act ● Control: what experimental samples are compared to

● Indicator: ??? ● Hydrolase: digestive enzymes

8. Describe the physical processes of food propulsion and mixing, including the difference between peristalsis and segmentation ● Peristaltic movements -propelling food through most of the alimentary canal. Waves of contractions followed by waves of relaxation that squeeze foodstuff through the alimentary canal. ● Segmental movements- local constrictions of the organ wall that occur rhythmically. They serve mainly to mix the foodstuff with digestive juices and to increase the rate of absorption by continually moving different portions of the chyme over adjacent regions of the intestinal wall. ● Peristalsis moves food, segmentation increases absorption

Urinary System ● Ureter 1. Identify on a model and indicate the function of the following organs: ● Urinary bladder ● Kidney ● Urethra

2. Describe the role of the urinary system in excretion as well as the maintenance of homeostasis ● Removal of nitrogenous waste and maintenance of electrolyte, acid-base, and fluid balances of the blood

3. On the kidney model, identify the following structures: ● Capsule ● Hilum

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Cortex Medulla Pyramids Columns

4. Identify the following arteries and veins of the kidney ● Renal

5. Identify the following: ● Peritoneum ● Adventitia ● Detrusor ● Ruage ● Ureteric Orifices ● Trigone ● External & Internal Urethral Sphincters ● Prostate 6. Observe transitional epithelium of the bladder. Describe the properties that this type of tissue cinfers to the bladder.

● Interlobar ● Arcuate ● Interlobular/Cortical Radiate

7. On a nephron model identify: ● Afferent arteriole ● Efferent arteriole ● Glomerulus ● Glomerular capsule ● Distal and proximal convoluted

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tubules Peritubular capillaries Loop of henle Vasa recta Collecting duct

8. Differentiate between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons (which is most abundant and difference in function) ● Cortical nephrons are most numerous, make up 85% of nephrons. Located in renal cortex and in small parts of renal loop ● Juxtamedullary nephrons are located deep in the cortex at the border with the medulla, their long nephron loops penetrate deeply into the medulla, play an important role in concentrating urine 9. Trace blood supply from renal artery to renal vein

10. Trace the path of urine formation and collection from plasma to excretion

11. Describe the three processes of urine formation: filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion. State the location along the length of a nephron where each process occurs ● Filtration- role of the glomerulus, passive process, portion of the blood passes from the glomerular capillary into the glomerular capsule ● Tubular reabsorption- many of the filtrate components move through the tubule cells and return the blood in the peritubular capillaries. water, ions and other substances get reabsorbed from renal tubule lumen into peritubular capillaries and then into blood ● Tubular secretion- the reverse process of reabsorption. Substances move from the blood of the peritubular capillaries through the tubular cells into the filtrate to be disposed of in the urine 12. Describe the process of micturition of bladder. Describe urinary incontinence ● Micturition is the act of emptying the bladder, occurs when both the internal and external urethral sphincters relax and the detrusor contracts, all at the same time ● Urinary incontinence is lack of voluntary control over external sphincter

Reproductive System 1. Identify the following on a model or chart: ● testis (testes = ...