Leadership Final Study Guide PDF

Preview

Summary

Comprehensive final Study guide...

Description

MGMT 452: Study guide for Final Exam

Chapter 9: Motivation, Satisfaction, and Performance p54

Defining Motivation, Satisfaction, and Performance Motivation: anything that provides direction, intensity, and persistence to behavior; choosing an activity or task to engage in, establishing the level of effort to put forth on it, and determining the degree of persistence in it over time. Performance: concerns behaviors directed toward the organization’s mission or goals or the products and services resulting from those behaviors Effectiveness: generally involves making judgments about the adequacy of behavior with respect to certain criteria such as work-group or organizational goals “An adequate level of motivation may be a necessary but insufficient condition of effective performance” pg. 371 Job Satisfaction: is not how hard one works or how well one works, but rather how much one likes a specific kind of job or work activity Organizational citizenship behaviors: behaviors not directly related to one’s job that are helpful to others at work “The best leaders may well be those who can motivate workers to perform at a high level while maintaining an equally high level of job satisfaction.” pg. 373

Understanding and Influencing Follower Motivation “Leaders who are knowledgeable about different motivational theories are more likely to choose the right theory for a particular follower and situation, and often have higherperforming and more satisfied employees as a result.” pg. 375 “Most performance problems can be attributed to unclear expectations, skill deficits, resource/equipment shortages, or a lack of motivation.” pg. 376 Needs Theories “These theories assume people have basic needs, and leaders can motivate followers by helping them satisfy their needs.” pg. 377 Needs: refer to internal states of tension or arousal, or uncomfortable states of deficiency people are motivated to change

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: conceptualization of needs represented by a triangle with 5 levels arranged in a hierarchy - Any person’s behavior can be understood primarily as the effort directed to satisfy one particular level of need in the hierarchy - Which level happens to be motivating a person’s behavior at any time depends on whether or not lower needs in the hierarchy have been satisfied. -------------------------------------Self-Actualization Needs ------------------------------Esteem Needs -----------------------Belongingness Needs ---------------Security Needs ------Physiological Needs ERG Theory: Alderfer’s existence-relatedness-growth theory - similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs - Existence needs ---> physiological and security needs - Relatedness needs → social and esteem needs - Growth needs ---> self-actualization needs - 2 Differences: - Holds that people may try to satisfy more than one need at a time - Frustration of a high-level need can lead to efforts to satisfy a lower level need - Frustration regression hypothesis: a follower who is continually frustrated in achieving some need might regress and exert effort to satisfy a lower need that has already been satisfied Conclusions on Needs Theories pg. 381 - “Leaders wanting to motivate followers to engage in certain behaviors or exert extra effort should start by determining if their lower-level needs are being satisfied.” -“Leaders should do all they can to help followers meet these needs.” - “None of the theories makes specific predictions about what an individual will do to satisfy a particular need...This lack of specificity and predictive power severely limits the practical applicability of the need theories in real-life settings” - “Leadership practitioners may need to address some basic, fundamental areas before their attempts to get followers to expend more effort on work-related behaviors will be successful.” Individual Differences in Motivation Achievement orientation: an individual’s tendency to exert effort towards task accomplishment depends partly on the strength of his or her motive to achieve success Values: represent a person’s most important and enduring beliefs and make up another set of individual difference variables that are related to motivation

Key Work Values - page 385 - not about to type out all of these come on Recognition - fame, visibility, publicity Power - enjoys competition, being seen as influential, strives to achieve Hedonism - motivated by pleasure, variety, excitement; risk-taking Altuistic - improving society, helping others Affiliation - meeting new people, working in groups Tradition - strong customs and standards of behavior Security - stable, predictable, risk-free environments Commerce - motivated by financial success; more pay Aesthetics - motivated when working in environments that value artistic expression Science - analyzing data; look deeply at problems, truth-seeking Extrinsic motivational bias: the false belief that followers are more motivated by money rather than job security, recognition, or helping others Intrinsic Motivation: behavior seemingly motivated for its own sake, for the personal satisfaction and increased feelings of competence or control one gets from doing it - Closely related to work values in that people often enjoy doing those activities aligned with their work values Overjustification effect: external rewards can result in a decrease in intrinsic motivation when they are perceived to be “controlling” “The more a leader aligns followers’ intrinsic interests with their work activities, the more motivated the team is likely to be.” pg. 388 Cognitive Theories - assume leaders can motivate followers by setting goals and bolstering their beliefs about tasks accomplished Goal setting:helping followers see how a goal might be attained by following a systematic plan to achieve it Pygmalion Effect: occurs when leaders articulate high expectations for followers; in many cases these expectations alone will lead to high performing followers and teams Golem Effect: leaders who have little faith in their followers’ ability to accomplish a goal are rarely disappointed Expectancy Theory: rational approach to understanding motivation - motivated performance is the result of conscious choice, and people will do what they believe will provide them the highest (or surest) rewards Effort-to-performance: ranges from no chance of the performing the desired behavior adequately to absolute certainty

Performance-to-outcome expectancy likelihood of receiving a reward, given that you’ve achieved the desired level of performance Equity Theory: cognitive approach that assumes people value fairness in leaderfollower relationships. Personal Outcomes = Reference Group Outcomes ________________ _______________________ Personal Inputs Reference Group Inputs Positive Self-Efficacy: used to note beliefs where people feel confident that they have the power to create desired effects Negative Self-Efficacy: self-debilitating beliefs Situational Approaches - Operant Approach: a popular way to change the direction, intensity, or persistence or behavior through rewards and punishments -

Reward: any consequence that increases the likelihood that a particular behavior will be repeated - Punishment: the administration of an aversive stimulus or the withdrawal of something desireable, each of which decreases the likelihood a particular behavior will be repeated - Contingent: rewards or punishments are administered as consequences of a particular behavior - Noncontingent: rewards or punishments are not associated with particular behaviors - Extinction: the process by which behaviors that are not rewarded will eventually be eliminated “When properly implemented, there is sample evidence to show that the operant approach can be a very effective way to improve follower motivation and performance.” pg. 400 - Some research shows that rewards work better than punishments - Contingent rewards are even better Steps to using operant principles to improve followers’ motivation and performance: 1. Leadership practitioners need to clearly specify what behaviors are important 2. Leadership practitioners need to determine if those behaviors are currently being punished, rewarded, or ignored 3. Leadership practitioners need to find out what followers actually find rewarding and punishing 4. Leadership practitioners need to be wary of creating perceptions of inequity when administering individually tailored rewards

5. Leadership practitioners should not limit themselves to administering organizationally sanctioned rewards and punishments 6. Administration of non-contingent consequences has relatively little impact, so leadership practitioners should administer rewards and punishments in a contingent manner whenever possible. Empowerment - The other situational approach to motivation - 2 components: 1. Delegating leadership and decision-making down to the lowest level possible 2. Equipping followers with the resources, knowledge, and skills necessary to make good decisions - Delegation without development is often perceived as abandonment, and development without delegation can often be perceived as micro-management - Leaders wishing to empower their employees much determine what followers are capable of doing, enhance and broaden these capabilities, and give followers commensurate increases in authority and accountability Psychological components of empowerment pg. 404 - Macro: 1. Motivation 2. Learning 3. Stress - Micro: 1. Self-determination 2. Meaning 3. Competence 4. Influence

Understanding and Influencing Follower Satisfaction Functional turnover: healthy for an organization Dysfunctional turnover: occurs when the “best and brightest” in an organization become dissatisfied and leave it. Most likely to occur when downsizing is the response to organizational decline. - May have devastating effects including: - Individuals best positioned to turn company around are now gone - Those who remain are even less capable of successfully dealing with the additional workload associated with the downsizings - Training budgets tend to be slashed during downsizings - Organizations that downsize have a very difficult time recruiting people with the skills needed to turn the company around

Global, Facet, and Life Satisfaction - Researchers collect data about people’s attitudes about work using some type of job satisfaction survey Global satisfaction: assesses the overall degree to which employees are satisfied with their organization and their job Facet satisfaction: assess the degree to which employees are satisfied with different aspects of work, such as pay, benefits, promotion policies, working hour and conditions, and the like. Why Do People Leave Organizations? - Limited recognition and praise - Compensation - Limited authority - Personality conflicts - Other Why Do People Stay with Organizations? - Promises of long-term employment - Supports training and education - hires/keeps hard-working, smart people - Encourages fun, collegial relationships - Bases job evaluation on innovation Hierarchy effect: people with longer tenure or in higher positions tend to have higher global and facet satisfaction ratings than those newer to or lower in the organization Life satisfaction: concerns one’s attitudes about life in general. - Since leaders are often some of the most influential people in their followers’ lives, they should never underestimate the impact they have on their followers’ overall wellbeing. Reference group: the organization’s past results can be used as one kind of reference group; job satisfaction rating from similar organizations can be another. Three Theories of Job Satisfaction - Affectivity - Negative affectivity: people with this disposition consistently react to changes, events, or situations in a negative manner - Positive affectivity: people who consistently react to changes, events, or situations in a positive manner; they are happy with their lives, and then to take an upbeat, optimistic approach when faced with new situations - Affectivity can have several implications: - One’s own affectivity can have a strong influence on followers’ morale or satisfaction levels

-

-

-

Leading a high percentage of followers having either positive or negative affectivity would likely result in very different leadership experiences Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory - Found that answers to what satisfied employees about their work fell within 5 categories - Motivators: the factors that led to satisfaction - Hygiene factors: led to dissatisfaction Organizational Justice - Cognitive approach based on the premise that people who are treated unfairly are less productive, satisfied, and committed to their organizations - Interactional justice: reflects the degree to which people are given information about different reward procedures and are treating with dignity and respect - Distributive justice: followers’ perceptions of whether the level of reward or punishment is commensurate with an individual’s performance or infraction - Procedural justice: involve the process in which rewards or punishments are administered

Chapter 10: Groups, Teams, and Their Leadership Introduction ● Leaders need to understand their skills, abilities, values, and desires ● Groups and teams have their own special characteristics ● Group perspective looks at how different group characteristics can affect relationships both with the leader and among the followers Individuals versus Groups versus Teams ● Two identifying characteristics of groups: mutual interaction and reciprocal influence ● Teams also have mutual interaction and reciprocal influence ● Four other ways to distinguish 1. Team members usually have a stronger sense of identification among themselves than group members do (ex. Team uniforms) 2. Teams have common goals or tasks; these may range from the development of a new product to an athletic league championship (Group members don't have same cohesion and may clash with members) 3. Task interdependence typically is greater with teams than with groups 4. Team members often have differentiated and specialized roles than group members ● Important to know that the distinctions highlighted probably reflect only matters of degree The Nature of Groups ● Group: two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person ● Three important aspects of groups 1. The definition incorporates the concept of reciprocal influence between leaders and followers, an idea considerably different from one-way nature of influence implicit in the dictionary’s definition 2. Group members interact and influence each other 3. The definition does not constrain individuals to only one group ● Groups and organizations are different things ○ Organizations can be so large that most members do not know most of the other people in the organization (little intermember interaction and reciprocal influence) ● The 6 concepts that can affect both leaders and followers 1. Group Size ● The leader emergence is partly a function of group size ● As groups become larger cliques are more likely to develop (subgroups of individuals who often share the same goals, values, and expectations) ● Group size also can affect a leader’s behavioral style

○ Leaders with large span of control tend to be more directive, spend less time with individual subordinates, and use more impersonal approaches when influence followers ○ Leaders with a small span of control tend to display more considerations and use more personal approaches when influencing follower ● Group size also affects group effectiveness (optimal number of workers for a task is 5 to 7) ● Additive task is one where the groups output simply involves the combination of individual outputs ● Process loss resulting from factors such as some members not pushing in the right direction (inefficiencies created more and more people working together) ● Social Loafing: the phenomenon of reduced effort by people when they are not individually accountable for their work ● Social facilitation: working in the presence of others may actually increase effort of productivity through this phenomenon 2. Developmental Stages of Groups (By Tuckman) ● First stage forming ○ Polite conversation, the gathering of superficial information about fellow members, and low trust (group rejection of negative leaders in this stage ● Second stage Storming ○ Usually marked by intragroup conflict, heightened emotional levels, and status differentiation as remaining contender struggled to build alliances and fulfill the group's leadership role ● Norming stage ○ Clear emergence of a leader and the development of group norms and cohesiveness ● Performing Stage ○ When group members played functional, interdependent roles that were focused on the performance of group tasks ● Importance of these stages ○ People are in many more leaderless group than they may realize ○ Potential relationships between leadership behaviors and group cohesion and productivity ● Criticism ○ Subjects do not represent teams ○ Gersick better model ■ Teams don't jump right in and get to work. They spend most of the first half of the team’s life muddling through various ideas and strategies. About halfway through the project the team seems to experience the midlife crisis and reexamine their strategy.

3. Group Norms ● Norms are the informal rules groups adopt to regulate and regularize group members behaviors ● Norms are more likely to be seen as important and apt to be enforced if they ○ Facilitate group survival ○ Simplify or make more predictable, what behavior is expected of group members ○ Help group avoid embarrassing interpersonal problems ○ Express the control values of the group and clarify what is distinctive about the group ● Hackman recommendations for enhancing performance 1. Group members should actively scan the environment for opportunities that would require a change in operating strategy to capitalize upon them 2. The team should identify the few number of behaviors which team members must always do and those which they should never do to conform to the organization's objectives 4. Group Cohesion ● Group cohesion is the glue that keeps a group together ● Some groups can be become so cohesive they erect what amount to fences or boundaries between themselves and others this is overbounding (can block the use of outside resources that could make them more effective) ● Groupthink: people in a highly cohesive group often become more concerned with striving for unanimity than is objectively appraising different courses of action ● Ways to reduce groupthink ○ Leaders should encourage all group members to take on the role of critical evaluator ○ Leaders should create climate of open inquiry through their own impartiality and objectivity ○ The risk of groupthink can be reduced if independent groups are established to make recommendations on the same issue ○ At least one member of the group should be assigned the role of devil’s advocate, an assignment that should rotate from meeting to meeting ● Ollieism: a variation of groupthink, occurs when legal actions are taken by overly zealous and loyal subordinates who believe that what they are doing will please their leaders ● Should not avoid cohesion ○ Problems are rare ○ You don't want no cohesion in groups people will be dissatisfied Teams

●

Effective Team characteristics and team building ○ First effective teams had a clear mission and high performance standards ○ Second leaders of successful team took stock of their equipment, training facilities, and opportunities, and outside resources available to help the team ○ Leaders of effect teams spend a considerable amount of time assessing the clinical skills of the team members ○ Good leaders would then work to secure those resources and equipment necessary for team effectiveness ○ Spend time considerable amount of time planning and organizing in order to make optimal use of available resources, to select new members with needed technical skills, or to improve needed technical skills of existing members ○ High levels of communication to minimize interpersonal conflict (group maintenance ...