Lifespan - Shirley Ogletree, chapter PDF

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Shirley Ogletree, chapter 10,11,12,13...

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Language and Education ● ● ● ● ●

Phonology: sound system Morphology: units of meaning in a word Syntax: sentences from words (grammar) Semantics: meaning. (To what extent do we share an understanding?) Pragmatics: social conventions (do you speak differently to friends vs grandparents?)

Infant responsiveness to speech ● /p/ versus /b/: around 2 months: we come into the word able to hear all of the sounds of all human languages ● Recognition/perception of phonemes: own/other language ● Word segmentation (7 ½ months) they know where words begin and end ● Child directed speech or “baby talk”: changing our voices when we talk to babies ● Study: if 9 month old babies hear “no, don’t touch” in a positive tone, they will continue to play with toy, but 18 month olds stop if they hear “no” even in a positive way Prelinguistic “speech” ● Cooing: vowel like sounds (6-8 weeks) ● Babbling vowel/consonant combinations (around 4 months) (ma, ba, da) ● Comprehension ahead of production ● Similarities: cross cultural, sign language One-word stage ● First word: around a year ○ Holophrases (whole sentence or phrase in one word) “milk” ○ Nouns (cat, dog, ● Joint attention/gestures ● Syntactic bootstrapping (how the word is used in a sentence) ● Under/overextension (overextension: overusing a word, calling cat a dog, cow a dog) (underextension: only calling their own dog a dog) ● Babies learn a lot of words before they learn to combine them, could be at a slow pace until spurt ● Then, vocabulary spurt (around 18 months) Two word stage ● Begin 18-24 months ● Telegraphic speech ○ Omit unnecessary words (you, me, pray at 5) ● Functional grammar ○ Meanings/functions expressed

Later developments

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Overregularization (wug study) ○ Learn irregular verbs, nouns first ○ Later learn rules ○ Over apply rules ○ Children learn the irregular first and mess up what they were getting right later. Ex: first learn plural of “man” (men), then later on go to overregularize it (the mans got on the train, who mans is dis) ○ Asking questions ■ Intonation ???? with uptick ■ “Wh” words (where doggy? where daddy?) ■ Inverting word order ○ Active/passive voice ■ Active: In most English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action denoted by the verb. ■ Passive: One can change the normal word order of many active sentences (those with a direct object) so that the subject is no longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb - or passive. ● The truck was hit by the car ● The flower was picked by the girl ○ Decontextualized language ○ __ refers to the component of language that describes how we form sentences from words (syntax) ○ The first language like sound to emerge is called ___ these emerge at about ___ A Explaining Language Acquisition

Support for Nativists (Chomsky) ● Guided by these burning questions about why children are so adept at learning a language, Noam Chomsky developed what is called the nativist perspective. According to Chomsky's theory, infants have an innate ability to learn language. From a very early age, we're able to understand the basics of language. For instance, Chomsky argued, children are able to understand the appropriate order of words from a young age. Instead of saying ''Juice I want,'' children know to say ''I want juice!'' Chomsky noted that this is similar across languages. Children are able to do this even before they have developed much of a vocabulary. This is an important point for Chomsky because it underscores his theory that children are able to understand the structure and rules even before they know many words. Support, continued ● Mutant Gene: FOXP2 ● Critical/sensitive period ○ Case of Genie ○ A second language ● Critical thinking controversy: ○ Washoe, Koko and the social exchange clip

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○ Are humans qualitatively different than animals? ○ Can animals acquire a language? ○ Anthropocentrism: center Criticism of Chomsky Primate language Chimp farmhand Capuchin fairness

Interactionist/Cognitive Perspective ● Pulls strings for nature and nurture perspectives ● Piaget: representational ability and language ● Vygotsky: language contributes (tool of culture) to cognitive/social development (zone of proximal development) ● Turn taking: the dance of language ● There is a wide variety of interaction with babies among various cultures ● We come into this world ready to interact with others, which is why we coo or babble ○ Roles of turn taking in conversation ● Mere exposure not enough, but wide cross cultural variation ● Promoting language acquisition, reading to children ● Children have a more limited attention span, important to re-engage them in some way Education ● Mastery motivation in infants ● Typically we focus on measuring mastery with performance, we compare to others ● Fixed mindset (ability fixed) vs growth mindset (ability can be improved) ● If we think of our ability to understand science, we can have a: ○ Fixed perspective: if I regard this as something I’m born with, consequences are that you’re stuck with it, there is nothing you can do to improve ○ Growth mindset: ability is the result of effort ○ If they are told that they have low ability, may develop fixed mindset “what’s the use?” ● Mastery (learning) versus performance goals ○ High/low ability, learning/performance goal research ● Parents encourage learning, effort ○ Paying for grades, attendance, reading research ○ Reward children for perseverance, even if they aren’t initially successful ● Critical thinking question: did your parents pay for your grades? Was it effective? ● Research related to grades, attendance, reading Effective schools ● Emphasize academics, effective teachers (advancement of students) ● Effective on the spot disciplining ● Task oriented comfortable atmosphere ● Your school?

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It’s too hot to eat illustrates a sentence with ___ structure but several ___ meanings. A. surface, deep ○ LAD chomsky: Noam Chomsky put forth an idea called the language acquisition device or LAD, for short. The LAD is a hypothetical tool hardwired into the brain that helps children rapidly learn and understand language. Chomsky used it to explain just how amazingly children are able to acquire language abilities as well as accounting for the innate understanding of grammar and syntax all children possess. ○ Keep in mind that the LAD is a theoretical concept. There isn't a section of the brain with 'language acquisition device' printed on it and a big switch to turn on and learn a new language. Rather, the LAD is used to explain what are most likely hundreds or thousands of underlying processes that humans have in their brains that have evolved to make us particularly exceptional at learning and understanding language. ○ Chomsky developed the LAD in the 1950s, and since then, has moved on to a greater theory called universal grammar (or UG) to account for the rapid language development in humans. While universal grammar is a bit beyond the scope of this article, just remember for now that LAD later evolved into this theory. Those who were told they were low in ability and given a performance goal did the worst

Self and personality ● Approaches to personality development ○ Psychoanalytic Theory: relations with parents first 5 years, tends to deal with issues such as guilt or feeling proud. ○ Trait/Psychometric theory: Measurements of psychological characteristics, removing cognition and focusing on personality. Big 5, OCEAN/CANOE: ■ Openness to experience ■ Conscientiousness: do you follow through with what you say? ■ Extraversion: how outgoing are you? How much do you like to socialize? ■ Agreeableness: do you get along easily with other people? Do you tend to disagree with others? Do you relate to others easily? ■ Neuroticism: how anxious are you? How worried do you get? Are you stable and take life as it comes without getting too upset about it? ○ Social Learning Theory: emphasizes importance of Bandura's social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. This theory supposes that most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling. ○ ● Temperament ○ Thomas & Chess ■ Easy (40%) ■ Difficult (10%) difficult babies are more likely to survive a famine because they demand food whereas easy babies die more often in this circumstance

■ Slow to warm up (15%) ■ Goodness of fit: what’s going on in society that is more important than the baby? ■ Does not add up to 100 because babies can be inconsistent ○ Rothbart (connections with big 5) ■ Surgency/extraversion (energetic approach) surgency is a trait aspect of emotional reactivity in which a person tends towards high levels of positive affect. It has been linked to the Big Five personality traits of extraversion in children. ■ Negative affectivity (irritable, fearful, sad) Negative affectivity (NA), or negative affect, is a personality variable that involves the experience of negative emotions and poor self-concept. Negative affectivity subsumes a variety of negative emotions, including anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness. ■ Effortful control (attention, behavior, emotions) can they begin to control their behavior? Emerging self ● Self-recognition ○ Red nose study: if they recognize the reflection as themselves, they will wipe off the rouge on their noses (18-24 months old) ○ Self recognition determines a special type of intelligence ○ Personal pronouns ● Self-definition: the understanding or determination of one's own nature or basic qualities ○ Preschoolers: ○ Elementary age children: ○ Adolescents: ● Self-esteem: how we feel about ourselves ○ Changes with age, more differentiated ○ Most children have at least five parts by mid elementary ■ Overall self worth is measured in those five parts: ● scholastic competence ● social acceptance ● behavioral conduct ● athletic competence ● physical appearance ■ Perceived/desired competence ● Ideal self gap: how close we are to filling the gap feeds into our overall self concept, or how we judge ourselves ● What dimensions do you judge yourself with? What are most important to you ■ Factors affecting self-esteem ● Genetic contribution:

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Social feedback from peers/teachers emphasize how we see ourselves. Parental feedback: warm, democratic (listens to our perspective) style. Typically end up with children that have higher self esteem Should we try to boost self-esteem in children? Self-esteem vs self-acceptance? Roger’s unconditional self-regard: a concept developed by the humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers, is the basic acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does, especially in the context of client-centered therapy. The source of neuroses is stemming from conditions set by parents for love. ○ If parents have conditions, they incorporate these conditions of worth, eventually distorting reality. We find ways to distort reality to feel better about ourselves. ○ The therapist accepts the person no matter what. There is a distinction between accepting the person and behavior. You can still accept the person but disapprove the behavior. ○ If you accept the person they will accept themselves.

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Identity ○ Erikson: identity vs role confusion ○ Marcia: Refining and extending Erik Erikson’s work, James Marcia came up with four Identity Statuses of psychological identity development. The main idea is that one’s sense of identity is determined largely by the choices and commitments made regarding certain personal and social traits. ○ Crisis experienced (if a person experienced an identity crisis) Commitment made (this could happen without a crisis, ex: marrying childhood best friend or inheriting father’s business, negative crisis) ○ There could be negative crisis and negative commitment: no real sense of identity but no crisis earlier. Identity Diffusion: (don’t know don’t care)– the status in which the adolescent does not have a sense of having choices; he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment ●

While learning about gender roles in society, Kathleen realizes that she doesn’t really know what roles men and women should play in a household, and that the question doesn’t really

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seem to excite her or even matter to her. Two boys on the playground begin discussing their views on life after death, and what matters in this life. While one boy has given a lot of thought to the matter, the other is unsure and would prefer not to really think about it. Paul strongly identifies with the rock and roll music of the eighties and decides that he wants to be a rock and roll musician when he gets older. Bryan, on the other hand, has never developed a strong interest in music and doesn’t much care what’s playing on the radio. All of these are examples of identity diffusion because the people involved have not yet made their personal choices to solidify their identity.

Identity Foreclosure (does care doesn’t know)– the status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future (e. g. allowing a parent to determine a career direction) As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options. ● ● ●

For instance, a tween might proclaim that he is politically conservative (his political identity), even though he has not actively explored other options. He has simply considered himself to be on the right because that's his parents' political identity. As he enters the late tween and teen years, however, he may begin to question his political beliefs and try out other approaches. Through this exploration (identity moratorium), he will eventually reach political identity achievement, which may or may not be conservative in nature. Foreclosure: when you make a commitment too early without exploring others

Identity Moratorium (soul searching, ready to choose)– the status in which the adolescent is currently in a crisis, exploring various commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not made a commitment to these choices yet. Haven’t resolved “who am I? Where am I going?” ●

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This includes examples such as visiting different types of churches. Perhaps they were raised Catholic but decide to visit a Protestant church. They may do so without feeling particularly committed to any one approach. In other words, a person in a moratorium is undergoing an active "identity crisis." While this period may feel confusing and difficult to endure, many psychologists believe that an individual must go through a moratorium before he or she can form a true sense of identity (a state called identity achievement).

Identity Achievement – the status in which adolescent has gone through a identity crisis and has made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role or value) that he or she has chosen. Identity achievement: knowing who they feel like they are. ○ Gender differences? Intimacy versus consolation ○ Ethnic identity. ○ Many people are at different places depending on domain. ● Vocational identity: ○ Vocations are often between childhood and adulthood because a lot of people in high school see themselves in high prestige jobs,

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then take college courses and decide “maybe this isn’t the career choice for me” Choices unrealistic with age: interests, capacities, values, opportunities Influenced by gender Influenced by SES (socioeconomic status). If our parents come from a specific school or graduate college, they may expect us to do the same. If you come from a working class school/environment, you may not see this as a choice for your future. For example: “college is way too expensive, I could never do that” Career services at TXST Our larger cultural macro also influences our vocations ■ Crisis: limited to modern, industrialized cultures ■ Individualistic culture: personal achievements, happiness ■ Collectivist culture: Japan, word “I” embedded in social context. More modest, self-critical. Influences on stability/change ■ Stability: heredity, significant childhood experiences, gene/environment correlations ■ Change: biological factors (disease), environmental changes, poor fit (person/environment) ■ If something significant happens to us in childhood, it may impact us well into adulthood

Erikson’s stages for adulthood ■ Intimacy versus isolation ■ Middle adulthood: 45?-65 age range ● Generativity (how am I positively helping the future?) versus stagnation (if not helping the future, you feel stuck and aren’t doing much in your life, boredom. Decides that their lives are not meaningful) ■ Later adulthood ● Ego integrity (positive outcome, we feel overall okay about our choices) versus despair (meaning we have lots of regret. if we’re aware that life is short and reflect negatively on how we lived)

○ Levinson’s Stages of adult development ■ Initially interviews with men only ● Life structure ● Midlife crisis: 40-45 ○ Perhaps “questioning” rather than “crisis”

○ Late adulthood ■ Performance: selective optimization with compensation, “pick the kinds of skills they’re best at, and if there are things they aren’t too good at doing, are there ways to compensate for it?” ■ Retirement ● Pre-retirement phase: if people retire, they plan for it. “How am I going to spend my time? What am I planning to do?” ● Honeymoon phase: “this is wonderful, I don’t have to deal with my shitty boss anymore” ● Disenchantment phase: “This is less than what I anticipated. I am not bringing anything to fruition” ● Reorientation phase: “I know I need to give back to the community.” ○ Aging and self-esteem ■ Rises in early/middle adulthood ■ Drops off in late “old age” ■ Self-esteem influences: how do they keep their selfesteem? ● Smaller ideal self gap ● Comparison group change ● Avoid self-stereotyping “forgetful, dody, not physically able” ■ Gender differences ● Sontag--double standard: in some ways men and women are evaluated differently ○ Men: money ○ Women: child rearing, children are leaving homes, things are winding down, physical appearance ○ If a divorce occurs, is a man more likely to marry a 20 something? ●

What kind of aging is best? ○ Activity theory: best way to age is to still be active ○ Disengagement theory: unplugging from responsibilities ○ Which style suits you?

Gender differences and sexuality ● Basic part of our self definition ○ Gender identity continuum? Genderqueer?

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Gender knowledge ○ Children acquire knowledge on what girls are supposed to be like and what boys are supposed to be like ○ By kindergarten, almost 100% of knowledge is acquired

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Psychological gender differences ○ What? ■ Small average differences ■ Greater variability within a sex than between the sexes ■ Men are taught: “Anger is more expressed than women. Boys don’t cry” ■ Women are taught: “It’s okay to cry and be sensitive. It’s okay to take care of yourself.” ■ Sexual dimorphism: men are larger than women ■ The idea is that the variability within men on something as obvious as height, if we think on campus the tallest woman on campus versus the tallest woman, what is the variability? Maybe 4’ft and 6’6. That’s a lot of variability. If there is tremendous variability. But if we’re comparing woman as a group and men as a group, we are only talking about average differences within genders. ■ Much larger height difference between shortest female and tallest female vs shortest male and tallest male ■ Gender differences on aggression ■ We’re much more similar than we are different ■ Some textbooks use “gender ____” instead of gender “differences” ● Why? ● Nature/nurture ● Social role theory: focuses on a nurture explanation. The reason we have psychological differences is because the expectations for the male role are different from t...