Motivation - chapter 2 PDF

Preview

Summary

Download Motivation - chapter 2 PDF

Description

Motivation: chapter 2 notes instinct – genetically programmed bits of behavior that occur when circumstances are appropriate and that requires no learning of the behavior

Early Instinct Theories For some theorists, animals were seen as having some rationality in addition to instinctive behavior, humans have instinctively control behavior in addition to a rational mind. Nominal fallacy – simply labeling something and instinct does not explain the behaviour (ie. Aggression) William James  Instincts are similar to reflexes, are elicited by sensory stimuli, and occur blindly the first time.  “Occurring blindly” - behavior occurs automatically under appropriate conditions and without knowledge of the end or goal towards which the behavior leads.  “Every instinct is an impulse” - acting within innate behaviour  Instinctual behavior changes with experience (memory acting on it after first time)  Modesty is an instinct (until desensitize)  Variability of Instinct on Two Principal 1. Habit (or learning) can inhibit and instinct 2. some instinct are transitory, useful only at certain time or during certain developmental period.  He did not distinguish between the reflex, and instinct, and a learned behavior. William McDougall  every instinct has three components; 1. the cognitive - recognizing of an object that can satisfy an instinct 2. the affective – feeling/emotion that the object arouses in the organism 3. the conative - striving towards or away from the object  every behavior consists of: 1. thoughts about those goals that will satisfy the motive 2. emotions that are aroused by behaviour 3. purpose striving aim at reaching the goal (by observing the striving and goal which the behavior is directed at one can identify the activated instinct)  Teleology - behavior serve some ultimate purpose  Instinct can be altered in four ways: 1. Activated - by specific external object or idea of object or by other external objects or ideas. 2. Movement through which to instinctive behavior occur can be modified (ie. Curiosity as an instinct use as baby crawling exploring change to reading) 3. Several instinct may be trigger simultaneously (more than one instinct activated to blend in one behavior) 1

 

4. Behaviors may become organize around particular objects or ideas, and less responsive in certain situations (ie. Assertive at work submissive at home) Anthropomorphism – giving human characteristics to objects or animals. McDougall didn’t distinguish between instinct and learning. All behavior is instinctive.

Criticism of early instinct theories: Kuo (1921):   

There is no agreement concerning what types of instincts, or how many exist. Behaviors called instinct are actually learned Wednesday is not the motivating force of behaviors, because behaviors aroused by external stimuli.

Tolman (1923):   

Calling behaviors arbitrarily as instinct robs the concept of any explanatory value. No clear criteria exist for determining which behaviors is instinct and which is not. Concept presented are very similar to Plato’s doctrine of innate ideas.

Classical Ethology Ethology - specialized branch of biology, concerned with evolution, development and function of behavior. Ethogram – list of observed behaviors for each species studied. Ethological approach is firmly based on Darwin’s theory of revolution. Consummatory behaviours - well coordinated fixed pattern of responding to specific stimuli. Can be innate (ie. Chewing, swallowing) Appetitive behaviours – behaviors that can be changed through learning Action Specific Energy (ASE) - each behavior has own source of energy. Innate Releasing Mechanism (IRM) - mechanism inhibiting behaviors from occurring. Key Stimuli (or sign stimuli) - stimuli that allows the behavior to occur either environmental or the result of the behavior of a species member. Usually simple (territorial physical display ie. Change in color of fish) Social Releasers - Key stimuli that serves as communicative function between species member. Configurational – when artificial stimulus is preferred to the natural one Supernormal Key Stimuli or Super – Optimal Key Stimuli – stimuli that releases behavior more effectively than normal stimulus

2

Fixed Action Patterns (FAP) – a I respond that a key stimuli releases. Species specific motor patterns are rigid stereotypes and for all practical purposes: blind. Taxes - similar to FAP, unlearned, but responsive to environmental change. For empirical properties of fixed action patterns 1. Stereotyped - the behavior itself is invariable, but some variability in performance exist. 2. Independent of immediate external control - once FAP activated, it runs until completion regardless of changes in external environment. 3. Spontaneous - internal motivation is necessary for FAP to happen. The longer since the last FAP happens, the more “ready” it is likely to occur. Energy has built up enough that it can happen in vacuo (without stimuli or vacuum activity). 4. Independent of learning – some FAP not modifiable through learning. Intention Movements and Social Releasers Intention Movements – low intensity incomplete responses indicating that energy is beginning to accumulate in instinctive behavioral system (before FAP happens). Ritualization - process where intention of movements occur. Motivational Conflict If two or more key stimuli happens at the same time. Which FAP would occur? Conflict Behavior – situation were two or more stimuli happens. Divide into four categories: 1. Successive Ambivalence Behavior - alternation of incomplete responses representing the two motivational states. (male whale might alternate between attack or escape to defend boundaries) 2. Simultaneous ambivalent behavior - happens in situation where both motivational states can be expressed in behavior at the same time. (ie. Arched back of cat flee or fight) 3. Redirected Behavior - same as Freudian concept of displacement. (ie. Child punished by parents taken out on the cat) 4. Ethological displacement - when two equally strong motives are in conflict and stop each other from happening. Reaction Chains Reaction Chains – sequence of responses in which each response is released by appropriate key stimulus [using key stimuli and capital FAB] this continues until the desired goal happens instinct – conditioning intercalcation – incorporation of learned and instinctive behaviors, E. G. Imprinting Imprinting – (Lorenz) socialization process in which young organism form attachment to parents. This occur in a very limited window called the sensitive period. Sexual preferences of adult result from this attachment. This bond is irreversible depend up on the if the species leaves the nest shortly or not. 3

Critical Period - limited portion of time when the attachment process occur. Koshini – some behaviours are more open to modification through learning than others. Genetic biological evolutionary influences Open and Closed Program – series of behaviors that are genetically determined. Open program is modifiable through experience. Seligman Prepared behaviors – instinctive and easily learned Contraprepared behaviours - impossible to learn, because they were prepared against during evolutionary history. Unprepared behaviors - involve the connection of events in the environment and appropriate responding [teaching a rap to press a lever and obtain food]. Learning unprepared behaviors are harder than learning prepared behaviors.

Human Ethology Eibl-Eibesfeltd – made original researched into human behaviours patterns. Facial expressions - many are universal across cultures, not learned. Eyebrow flick - briefly listing of the eyebrow upon greeting acquaintance. Appeasement gesture – behaviors that inhibits aggressive behaviors in social situation between a more dominant and less dominant animal Hager & Paul Ekman - examine the ability of people to recognize facial signals from distances. They choose 6 emotional expressions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust. -

Concluded: the face is a long-distance transmitter of the motion

Shyness - as genetic basis express and differences in our arousability. The threshold arousability = more inhibit in social situation (shyness). Consistent patterns displayed in shy and non-shy children 2-7 years age. Kagen - inherited tendency toward shyness requires some form of chronic environmental stress to cause it to develop. (just because it is inborn doesn’ t mean it has to come out unless under stress) -

birth order has effect on stress and development of shyness, younger child are being affected by older siblings (tease, take toys etc) and more likely to be shy. 2/3 of shy children were later born, 2/3 of non-shy children are first born. Genetically determined predisposition to behave in a particular way they require appropriate environmental circumstances for the expression

4

Stephen Suomi – found same in rehesus monkeys. -

Stresses of separation can be influenced by environmental circumstances. Having friendly peers and nurturing foster mother can reduce the stress produced by separation with the biological mom.

Additional Innate Behaviors Neoteny - retention of juvenile traits into adulthood. Be good for human adaptions since increases likelihood of helping behaviors from others. Eibl-Beibestflieldt Flirting behaviours - ritualized flight that invites pursue by the mail. Hair flipping - behavior and females an additional two different types of flirting behaviours. Kissing - ritualized form of feeding behavior derived from the feeding of infants. Baby talk - designed to elicit share a single behavior of the individual strengthen the bond between lovers Human uses same behavior as chimpanzees when threatening attack: -

Staring - considered rude and innate threat gesture.

Eye contact – complex, serve function providing information, indicating liking/attraction, competence and communicate feelings In pathology of depressed patients: eye contact, exploration of environments, and social behaviors were all lower before treatment and after. Crying, nonsocial behaviors and pathological behavior were higher before treatment after. Speech - has genetic base. Phonetic module - in human has evolved that analyzes sound and extract information necessary for the termination of phonetic gestures. Phonetic social releasers system - allow us to “read between the lines” when listening to someone talk and let us understand more than what is being said.

Ethological Concepts Concerning Sex and Aggression -

seen as largely inborn. Courtship behaviors are derived from parental care instinct.

2 types of aggressive behaviours: Interspecific - aggressive behavior between members of different species

5

Intraspecific - aggressive behavior between members of same species Predatory attack - getting behavior, characterized by lack of emotionality. Mobbing behavior - prey turned the table and attacks the aggressor in group. Critical region - intense aggressive behavior motivated by fear and instigated by an inability to escape. Lorenz’s ideas “ intraspecific aggression is advantageous”: 1. Spread out members more evenly - overwrite an area, statistically give each member better chance of survival. 2. Provides the strongest animal with the best territories in the first choice of mates. 3. Protection of the young. Ritualized tournaments – often used in resolving conflicts between same species. Appeasement gestures - special class of social releasers used to avoid conflict between members of same species. “Frequent performance of sexual behaviors decrease the likelihood of aggressive behaviors being performed and vice versa” (Cole et al, 1980) Monoamine Oxidase – MAOA - enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, serotonin (involved in reaction to threats)… If you are not broken down the body is in a state of constant readiness for flight or fight (very stressful). The complexity of human sexual and aggressive behavior seemed to be both learn and innate.

Modern Ethological Approaches Behavioural Ecology - area of research that looks at learned behavior. - Behavioral ecology is concerned with evolution of adaptive behavior in relation to ecological circumstances. Cognitive Ethology - study of animals mind, how it interprets information. 1st approach: Cognitive information processing capabilities of animal without making any assumptions whether such processing is accompanied by conscious awareness or intent. 2nd approach: Animals have limited consciousness of what they do, awareness is not equivalent to human consciousness. Marking test – chimps with touch and marketplace under head that they see in the mirror. 6

Evolutionary Psychology - the analysis of all human mind as a collection of the vault mechanism, the context that activates those mechanism, and the behavior generated by those mechanism. Adaptive problems - problems concerned with survival and reproduction. Somewhat learned, not as aggressive as instinct. -

Longer hair length serve as a cue for youthfulness in women. Male physical appearance communicates social dominance. Ie. Taller men w/ indicator of higher testosterone.

7...