Muslims Beliefs and Practices PDF

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Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices – Andrew Rippin Rippin, A. (2012) Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 4th Ed, Oxon: Routledge.

Emergence of Islamic Identity Chapter 4 - Political action and theory “Arabs...from the Arabian Peninsula in the seventh century... attack on Damascus 635 (the city being taken finally in 637), Ctesiphon in 637, and Jerusalem in 638.” - p59 “dispute among historians has been the extent to which religion was a motivating factor in these wars of expansion.” - p59 “To call it ‘Islam’ leads easily to the glossing of the difference between what was conceived then and what the religion became by the beginning of the third Muslim century when a fixed religious system had certainly emerged.” - p59 “Some scholars... refer to this early religion of the Arabs as “Hagarism”...”Muhammadanism” or even “Arab Monotheism”...” - p59 History of the Arab conquests and empire    

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“Abu Bakr took over after Muhammad's death in 632, the role of “caliph” (khalifa), ruler.” p60 “Damascus, Antioch, Jerusalem, and finally the whole Syrian area came under Arab control by 638.” - p60 “Conquest of Egypt 639-642" - p60 “Some of the islands of the Mediterranean came under Arab domination... Cyprus, Rhodes, Crete... result of the emergence of Arab sea power... Defence for the armies against the initially superior byzantine naval forces.” - p60 “Civil war... Ali and Mu’awiya met in... the battle of Siffin... Ali murdered by a rebel... Mu’awiya was able to take over Kufa... emerge as clear leader... formed what became the Umayyad dynasty, which lasted until 750.” - p61 “...supporters of Ali... gained the name the Shi’a, or “party,” of Ali, remained outside the control of the new leader.” - p61 “others... thought the whole process was illegitimate... opposed to both sides and became known as the Khawarji...” - p61 “The view of the Umayyads as a consistent and unified dynasty governing the Islamic empire is misleading. There were major ruptures and successful declarations of independence on many occasions.” - p62 “civil war and the rise of the Abbasid dynasty in 750.” - p62 “The Mongol conquest in 1258 spelled the end of even this remnant of ‘Abbasid caliphal prestige.” - p62

The notion of Jihad  

“The medieval view held that the world was divided into two arenas, dar al-Islam “the house of Islam” and dar al-harb “the house of war”.” - p63 “Qur’an, as in sura 22, verse 39, “Permission is given to those [believers] who are fighting [the disbelievers] because they have been wronged. Surely God is able to give them victory!”

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Whether this was a defensive or offensive struggle mattered little because the resistance of people to Islam was often taken to be equivalent to attack on Islam.” - p63 “Underlying the idea of jihad is a unified Muslim community, the umma, which has the collective duty to expand Islam; this was to be done under the leadership or commission of the caliph.” - p63

The Dome of the Rock and its significance  

Built in Jerusalem. “this is the oldest extant building of Islamic architecture... can be dated with precision... inscription... found on both sides... 691.” - p63/64 “During the rule of the Umayyad caliph ‘Abd al-Malik.” - p63

Why was the Dome of the Rock built?  

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“Later Muslim historians (believe)… The Dome of the Rock built as a place of pilgrimage.” p64 “Modern historians... suggesting that it is doubtful that any caliph would attempt to displace Mecca as a point of pilgrimage, for this would likely entail, as a result, the total rejection of that person’s legitimacy to be ruler of an “Islamic” state.” - p64 “...however... based upon a supposition that the pilgrimage to Mecca was already a central symbol of nascent Islam.” p64 “possible to conceive... two pilgrimages, one in Mecca under Ibn al-Zubayr and another in Jerusalem under ‘Abd al-Malik... in competition with one another.” p64 “another suggestion classically put forth... a sanctuary built to commemorate the ‘ascension’ (mi’ raj) of Muhammad... however... no part of the... inscription... makes any reference to this journey...” - p65 “various Muslim historians suggest that the Dome was built to rival the beauty of the Christian Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem.” - p65

The Interpretation of the Dome of the Rock 

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Text written on the outer and inner faces testify to the “development of Muslim doctrine... Here we have evidence of the status of key beliefs in Islam – the non-messianic and nondivine status of Jesus, the acceptance of a multiplicity of prophets, Muhammad’s receipt of revelation, and the designation of the religion itself by the name of Islam.” - p66 “By employing a clear tradition in Byzantine architecture, the Dome was able to provide evidence to the conquered people of the power of the new rulers.” - p66 “the Dome was built as a symbol of, and a vehicle for, the emergence of the self-definition of Islam over and against Christianity.” - p66 “...the emphasis on Christianity can be seen to suggest Islam’s supersession of the Christian faith, especially in light of its doctrine of Jesus and its condemnation of notions of the Trinity... Islam has taken over the Davidic heritage in both religious and political ways.” - p67

The caliph and his authority 

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“Classical Islam displayed the phenomenon of religious authority residing with a scholarly elite and ultimately, it would be claimed, with the entire community... was not always so.” p67 “Early on, the caliph, referred to by the title khalifat Allah, the “representative (or deputy) of God,” appears to have combined religious and political power, only to have the religious

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dimensions of the power removed in the third Muslim century (as reflected in the later theory of the caliphate) …" - p67 “Some recent scholarship has suggested that the early caliph saw himself in a mode very similar to the way in which the Shi’a pictured their own political religious leader, the Imam.” p67 “For the individual in the early period, therefore, the choice of whom to give one’s allegiance to was a religious one, since salvation was connected to it; at least, that was the argument that those in power (used)…" - p68 “...the caliph acted as judge, creating the sacred law and acting as the reference point for decisions on difficult items of law.” - p68

The ‘inquisition’ and the emergence of the scholarly elite   

“emergence of an independent scholarly group of people (symbolized in the figure of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, d. 885) in whom religious authority... was vested.” - p68 “an ‘inquisition,’ mihna, was initiated, such that only those who agreed with the caliph’s dogma would be allowed to hold official positions.” - p68 “Al-Ma’mun’s actions in attempting to enforce a version of Islamic orthodoxy backfired and led to the increasing prominence of those who rejected the caliphal authority in favour of the authority of a scholarly elite; their authority was said to lie in their transmission and interpretation of the Qur’an and the sunna of Muhammad.” - p68

Deciphering history through Islamic coins 

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“The creation of a uniform coinage for the Islamic empire, implemented by the caliph ‘Abd al-Malik (ruled 685-705), was preceded by an era in which pre-existing Sasanian and Byzantine designs were used.” - p69 “Arab-Sasanian coinage appears to have originated from mints in southern Iraq and Iran.” p69 “The coinage that is called Arab-Byzantine comes from the Syrian area...” - p70

Chapter 4 - Theological exposition 

“Theological writing is the end result of an attempt at religious self-definition; it attempts to enunciate what is believed by a group of people in terms of certain tenets.” - p72

The emergence of Islamic theological identity 

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“The basic elements of Islamic theology find their expression within the Qur’an and the sunna, and are elaborated to some extent in works such as the Sira of Ibn Ishaq (d. 767). In these contexts, the statements are not theology... but rather simple creedal formulae...” p72 “Belief in the oneness of God, in angels, in all the prophets and their scriptures, in the final judgement day, and in God’s decree for humanity are often seen to be the core elements of faith for all Muslims; such simple summations arose, however, only after extensive reflection and debate concerning some very basic theological issues in the formative centuries of Islam.” - p73

The definition of a Muslim 

“What emerged from the sources is a picture of a variety of groups, each going under a name which is often provided with a connection back to the times of ‘Ali and ‘Uthman, each

taking its own position on what constitutes the definition of membership within the emergent Muslim community.” - p74 The Khawarij 

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“all those who fall short of total adherence to the Islamic precepts are unbelievers... thus rendered targets of the Islamic jihad... membership... provided protection from such attacks.” - p74 “Their slogan is said to have been... ‘There is no judgement except that of God’... the Khawarij... the scripturalist party who rejected those who attempted to supplement the single source of authority in the community with a notion of the sunna. For the Khawarij, this sunna was not part of the divine revelation...” - p74/75 “...in many ways, a marginal group when viewed within the overall context of Islamic history... However, the tendency sidplayed in their thought has always provided a tension in Islam.” - p75

The Murji’a    

“those who appeared not to be following the outward precepts of Islam must still be accepted as Muslims; only God truly knows their religious state.” - p75 “A profession of faith along with an inward assent to Islam were all that was required to confirm community membership; faith (iman) is “of the heart and of the tongue.”” - p75 “this stance holds that ‘works’... are not part of faith...” - p75 (Read Abu Hanifa quote on p76!)

The Traditionalists   

“the name ‘traditionalist’ refers to the use of hadith materials in preference to the independent powers of reason.” - p76 “...there are degrees of ‘being Muslim.’” - p76 “Such faith varies by degrees, beginning with the basic confession of faith and then building from there; whoever makes the first step is entitled to be called a Muslim (and thus, in practical terms, the doctrine has the same consequences as that of the Murji’a) but perfection of faith is something to be reached through works.” - p77

The Qadariyya 

“those who can be observed not following the requirements of Islam are to be considered neither believers nor unbelievers, but somewhere in between – they are hypocrites. The end result in practical terms is, once again, the same as with the Murji’a, but the claim is being made that it is in fact possible to have an opinion about the status of a believer’s adherence to Islam.” - p77

The problem of free will and predestination  

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“The Qadariyya are those who discussed the issue of qadar, the preordination of events in the world by God.” - p77 “the Qadariyya were on the more revolutionary wing of the theological groupings; their espousal of free will was frequently connected to those agitating for a new political order which was opposed to the ruling Umayyad caliphs...” - p77 “If individuals were accountable for their actions, then so were governments, according to the arguments of the Qadariyya.” - p78

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“statements usch as Qur’an 13/27 - “God sends anyone He wishes astray” (implying that the individual’s fate is in the hands of God alone and there is nothing that can be done about it) are to be interpreted in the light of other statements such as Qur’an 14/27, “God sends wrongdoers astray,” where, it is asserted, the people are already astray (they are already “wrongdoers,” by the act of their own free will_ before God confirms them in their “fate.”” p78

The Mu’tazila and the role of reason 

“the first to introduce the Greek mode of reasoning and argumentation into Islamic religious discussions, changing the face of Muslim theology for all time as a result.” - p79

The justice of God  

“The notion of the justice of God, something demanded of the divinity by Greek logic, led to extensive discussions concerning the nature of God and His relationship to humanity.” - p79 “God must be just in assessing this punishment or reward, and therefore humanity must have a fair chance to perform on the side of good or evil. Any sense of predestination must be removed from the Qur’an, therefore, by reinterpretation.” - p79

The created Qur’an 

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“The Mu’tazila had their moment on political support under the ‘Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun (ruled 813-33), with the institution of the mihna serving as an inquest body investigating the creedal stance of leading figures at the time...” - p80 “The Mu’tazila championed the notion of the created Qur’an as a part of their understanding of the inherent free will of humanity, often pointing to Abu Lahab and his being condemned to hell in sura 111. The Qur’an must have been created at the time of its revelation, they argued, for otherwise the fate of Abu Lahab would have been established for all eternity, thus removing his freedom to determine his own fate.” - p80

The unity of God  

“An implication of this position on the unity of God was the emphasis on deanthropomorphization of the divinity.” - p81 “God’s ‘face’ was to be understood as His ‘essence,’ according to al-Khayyat, for example.” p81

The full of the Mu’tazila 

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“For the Mu’tazila, all humans are, in theory, capable of making the correct decision on issues of faith and law because of their God-given intellect. There is, therefore, implicit in this stance an anti-jurist bias that may well have proven to be a part of the cause of their ultimate downfall.” - p81 “...the caliph al-Qadir in the years 1017 and 1041, of demanding a profession of faith which rejected the Mu’tazili stance. This finally put a stop to the movement (at least until more recent times when it re-emerged in the guise of Modernism).” - p81 “the eventual downfall of the Mu’tazila was undoubtedly a result of political circumstances of the time as much as their doctrine...” - p82

Al-Ash'ari

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“Abu I-Hasan al-Ash'ari (d. 935) emerged out of the context of the Mu’tazila in the tenth century...” - p82 “this was a position which was to last as the most significant statement of Islamic theology.” p82 “He fully supported the position of predestination, God being pictured in the Qur’an clearly as All-powerful and All-knowing; that God should not know and not be in control of what people were doing is clearly a problem if the free will position is embraced.” - p82 “The phrase bila kayf, “without knowing how,” became a key term in Ash’ari theology, to be used whenever reason and the Qur’an or hadith met head-on in conflict.” - p83

Al-Maturidi 

“Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (d. 944) was another of the tenth-century theologians whose influence at the time seems to have been significant in the emergence of Sunni Islam.” - p83

 The role of theological writing   Early Christian theologies and Islam   Chapter 6 – Legal Developments  The idea of sunna   The emergence of schools of law   The role of al- Shafi'I   The development of the schools of law   Principles of jurisprudence   Relations between the schools of law

  Law and morality   The role of the judge   The administration of justice   The nature of Islamic Law   Muslim diet and cuisine   Chapter 7 – Ritual Practice  Testifying the Muslim faith   Islamic prayer   Friday noon prayer   Function of prayer   The mosque   Muslim charity

  The Muslim fast   Fasting at other times other than Ramadan   The Muslim pilgrimage   Other ritual activities   The interpretation of Muslim ritual   Travel as pilgrimage  ...