Narrative form and Genre PDF

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Summary

An introduction to film / TV narrative and genre, including case studies (Working Girl, La Haine, the Mindy Project)...

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Narrative Definition of narrative = a chain of events linked by cause and effect, occurring in time and space (Bordwell and Thompson, Film Art: 73) Viewer is active in the formation of the narrative Pick up on cues; recall prior information; anticipate things; generally participated in the creation of the film’s form. At the end of the film, their expectations created by the film are either satisfied or not. Narration = “the plot’s way of distributing story information in order to achieve specific effects. Narration is the moment-by-moment process that guides us in building the story out of the plot” (B + T, p.87) “We can … study narratives as a process, the activity of selecting, arranging, and rendering story material to achieve specific timebound effects on a perceiver.” Encourages the spectator to execute story-constructing activities (B & T: 33) “The filmmakers’ creative choices have organised narration in order to give us a unified experience” (B + T:97). No loose ends, nothing seems out of place. Every part contributes to the narrative.

Story VS Plot The filmmakers build the plot from the story, and the viewers build the story from the plot (B + T: 75). -

Story: a series of events recorded in their chronological order. The idea / basis. Plot: series of events deliberately arranged / manipulated to reveal the dramatic, thematic and emotional significance. A way of telling / presenting the story. It’s developed in order to create a better story. Events of story may be told from the perspective of one or two characters in order to manipulate the story  particular emotional responses.

Plot developments = better story The same story can be repeated with changes in the plot to create different stories. The plot is usually created before the story. Story development is about creating details and embellishments to make the plot engaging. For example, revealing the backstory of a character to encourage the viewers to feel sympathy for them. Shows their motivation. The story is arranged to keep the audience interested. Plot: the outline of the story. The story is what makes it interesting.

Diegesis: the total world of the story. Allows us to make sense of the film through inferred events.

Depicted events and inferred events. Inferred events: -

help keep the film short create suspense/surprise/fear cut out boring/irrelevant bits creates more audience engagement

Character Have a set of traits (attitudes, skills etc) that distinguish them. Films often encourage us to perceive binary opposites between characters, as conflict often arises from them. -

For example, the hero is just and heroic, the villain is evil and mean. Be specific about how this contrast gives rise to conflict. Opposite personalities, goals or themes. Can help us understand one character in relation to the other, contrasting character. Can be used to create the theme of the film. Binary opposites also show us how characters are individual and unique.

Structure Narratives usually present a series of changes from an initial situation to a final situation. By understanding how that pattern works, we can better understand the film (B + T). Usually: setup  development  climax Characters are linked to causes and effects within the film. They make things happen and react to changes that occur. They drive the action.

Bordwell + Thompson say narration is usually: -

Restricted or unrestricted: who knows what when? Objective or subjective: how deeply do we know the characters’ perceptions, feeling and thoughts?

On a spectrum

Working Girl & ‘traditional’ narrative structure ‘traditional’ because traditions / conventions change over time The three-act structure is a popular approach in mainstream cinema Between each act there’s an event (turning point) that takes the action in a different direction.

Divides the narrative into beginning, middle and end, or setup, development and resolution. There are usually turning points that divides the film and changes the direction of the action.

Turning points Usually at 30-minute intervals throughout the film

Act one: the setup Set up of the initial situation: shows character traits, goals and themes Has to keep you entertained, prevent confusion, clarify path of characters Theme is set up Stakes are introduced: why the audience should care Introduces binary opposites: men and women; working class secretaries and higher class executives.

Act two: the development The protagonist pursues their goals, overcomes obstacles. Narrative information is reaffirmed to make sure viewer is on the same page the filmmaker wants them to be on (character’s goals, path etc) Every scene moves the plot forward Makes use of deadlines (as many films / shows do). Orientate your sense of time, provides a timeframe. Creates a sense of imminence and urgency. Climax

Act three: the resolution Character arcs are completed (Tess learns to stand up for herself) Confrontations take place Goals are attained Plotlines are resolved Binary opposites are also resolved Often encourages the viewer to make connections between the end and beginning of the film Thematic parallels: seemingly insignificant scenes or shots are showed to be meaningful

La Haine + Alternatives to Traditional Narrative Structure “The style of narration appears appropriate to the fragmented, random lives of the protagonists. Close scrutiny, however, shows that La Haine is, on the contrary, a minutely structured and classically coherent film” – Jill Forbes Main structure is through the binary oppositions: suburban estate VS urban centre (2nd half of film) -

Also: teens vs adults, or teens vs police Day vs night (2nd half)

City centre is more middle and upper class. Contrasts with working class protagonists The short (wide angle) lenses “fixed” the characters against the background in the estate, whereas longer (telephoto) lenses were used in Paris to “detach” them and make them stand out.

Cause and Effect Inciting event = riot that happened just before plot of the film begins. Also the reason that the characters leave the estate for the city. Vince says he will shoot a cop if Abdel dies. This cause and effect sequence is different from the sequences that we see in mainstream, classically structured films. -

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The tension is constant. There’s a sense that something could happen at any time. The cause and effect is overseen by ‘higher forces’. The action is usually not incited by the characters, but by bigger social forces (the riots, the police getting attacked, Abdel living or dying, their social + economic contexts) In a classically structured narrative, the characters drive the action. They are the ‘cause’ of the effects. The characters do take action, but they don’t seem to matter. At the mercy of the social context they find themselves in.

Goals Working Girl involved clear goals. La Haine does not. The characters start and end up in the same place. Gives the sense that no matter how hard the characters work it will make no difference.

Time and deadlines Traditional films constantly remind us where we are in relation to the timeline of the plot. What is the effect of the ticking clock in relation to the structure? Doesn’t seem to be realistic. It is a way to remind us that the film is created and fiction. Subverts the notion of deadlines and urgency that can be found in classical films. Function of clock in la haine is unclear. Shows how it is an ordinary day and time is passing slowly.

Aimless / pointless scenes Ties in with how characters seem to be without goals Helps us feel their boredom on an experiential level instead of just being told how bored they are

Resolution? Not all films give us a sense of a neat conclusion Just like in the rest of the film, the effect of Vince’s decision is not influential enough. The violence continues despite his decision to not partake in it. This is social commentary. The characters do not really change much throughout the film. “The ending has a collective social dimension, rather than an individual moral one” Jill Forbes There’s a cyclicality. The film more or less returns to where it started. The same conflict and binary oppositions remain (riots, conflict between civilians and police). Feels like nothing has changed. Makes us question whether change is possible because no matter how hard they seem to try, the characters don’t seem able to escape their social situation.

Media vs Diegetic ‘Reality’ The reality of the story juxtaposed with the way their reality is mediated News footage and news camera crew used. They are disdainful of the TV crew but also desperate to have their reality shown through the media. It is the news and TV that they get info regarding Abdul from. Juxtaposition between characters in La Haine and characters in other Hollywood movies (eg. Vince mimics a famous scene from Taxi Driver in his bathroom mirror) The characters mimic very violent, masculine Hollywood ‘antiheroes’. Have a sense of control where their actions do have causal effects. The characters are in a sense victims of this patriarchal masculinity (in the sense that they are victimised by the police).

Television + Narrative Form An ongoing narrative. The shows are composed with no ending with the hope that they will stay that way indefinitely (Brett Martin) There’s no way for the writer to go back and adjust once the story has begun rolling.

The goal of a TV show, unlike movie or novel, is to never end. One way of addressing that basic economic mandate is to create a world in which there is no forward progress / story arc at all, just a series of discrete, repetitive episodes. But if you’re interested in telling an ongoing story, it helps for the show to include an endless series of variations in which people repeatedly play out the same pattern of behaviour, exhibiting only the most incremental signs of real change / progress (Brett Martin, difficult men, 104-106)

The narrative is fragmented. All serials, by definition, are broken on purpose. Calls attention to itself as an array of parts. Viewer is even more active as they are required to piece together information from across episodes.

Episodic VS Serial Both designed to accommodate the indefinite run-time of television. 1: Episodic: -

self-contained. Little continuity and long-term story development. Major story arcs avoided. Has its own beginning, middle and end. Are able to be viewed out of the original order, meaning that viewers can encounter the program in a haphazard order. Don’t have to be viewed in any particular order.

2: Serial: -

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completely continuous narrative. No sense of closure at end of each episode. Prior to the 1990s, the primary site of TV seriality in America was the daytime soap opera. Soap operas designed for both dedicated fans and distracted / narrative viewers who derive their narrative pleasure less from the forward-moving plot of new events and developments and more from the ripple effects of the events across the community of characters and their relationships within the drama. Lots of redundancy, especially in the narrative.

Nowadays we have much more control over our viewing, so we don’t need so much recapping and redundancy.

A new form emerges: Cumulative Narratives + Narrative Complexity “A redefinition of the episodic form under the influence of serial narration.” Both describe combination of serial and episodic. But unconventionality is more specific to narrative complexity.

Emerged during the 1980s: -

Due to the rise of technology (VHS and DVDs) Gives control to viewers regarding when and how they get to watch the episodes. We can re-watch things for clarification. This has impacted the way television is made. Previously, TV had been juxtaposed with ‘high art’ such as paintings, novels and some movies. The new form was portrayed as higher quality. HBO logo: “it’s not TV. It’s HBO” Encouraged more artistic and high-quality creation

Provides distinct programming and demographic advantages. Provides a story to follow across episodes for dedicated viewers, but is also able to hook new viewers who are seeing a random episode for the first time through episodic story arcs. By combining the strength of the original formats, it allows new and/or sporadic viewers to enjoy the standalone story of an episode while also rewarding more dedicated, long-tern viewers for their sustained interest in the overall series.

Rejects the need for closure that typifies the episodic form. Narrative complexity (Mittell): episodic form under the influence of serial narration. Not necessarily a complete merger. Rejects the need for plot closure within every episode. Ongoing stories -

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Is not as uniform and convention driven as episodic or serials norms (in fact, its most defining characteristic might be its unconventionality) Allows relationships and character drama to emerge from plot development Operational reflexivity: these new forms of TV draw the viewers’ attention to how the story is told. The viewer appreciates the construction and enjoys its results. calling attention to the constructed nature of the narration and asking us to marvel at how the writers pulled it off (Jason Mittell) Requires much more attention from the viewers since they don’t lay out the story as clearly as conventional forms of TV do. Viewers become aware of the perspective used to tell the story. Need to reflect on how we’re only given partial access to the diegesis.

Switch from public networks  paid subscriptions lets shows become niched. Also allows for more controversial content to be shown. More creative freedom.

Advantages of TV: -

Doesn’t force us to focus for too long (like films). Bite-size. TV series have the potential to tell a story over a much longer period of time Viewers can become more invested in characters. More + slower character development. Getting to know characters: The feeling of recognition and familiarity is in itself pleasurable. A relief from the burden and tension of having to assess what or whom we do not yet know.

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TV brought stories into people’s homes, whereas film is usually public (in cinemas) Encourages a dedicated fan-base to form

The internet and VHS, DVDs and streaming technologies have developed in tandem, influencing each other. TV has discovered that the cultivation of its story world / diegesis is a crucial element in its success at storytelling. Deep character relations and diegetic expansion  Creates more audience investment. (Jeffrey Sconce)

Challenges of TV: -

Sometimes seems like there’s too much time. Not enough actually happening. The narrative has to be stretched but also unified. There needs to be a sense of the story as a whole. Writers need to be able to structure the episode AND the season. Must juggle different levels of narrative. Writers must assume show will continue indefinitely, even though it could be cancelled

Discuss the ways in which ongoing TV narratives may complicate the relationship between story and plot, and between depicted and inferred events. Are there ways in which this complication may work to the benefit of a TV series? Plot = way in which story events are depicted in the narrative. Might allude to events that happened without actually showing them by having characters speak about them. Because cumulative narratives are ongoing, the series may end up going in unexpected directions. They can take events that were only inferred and depict them as part of the plotline. Eg. Season 1 tells story of only one main character, season 2 tells stories of other characters. Their backstories have existed as part of the diegesis but they haven’t been included in the plot. Creates longevity especially once the original plotline has been concluded.

Genre “Genre is a French word meaning 'type' or 'kind'. Thinking about film genres, therefore, employs ideas about different types or kinds of films.” (McDonald:7) Genre is not the same as: -

Style. Certain genres do have stylistic elements in common, but they are not the same thing. Eg. Low-key lighting in horror films. Narrative mode. An approach to story-telling with a distinct set of characteristics. Different genres can fall under the same narrative mode. Film movements: ideologies, goals, styles. Can encompass various genres.

Genre, although central to film, exceeds the cinema. Eg. The western was already established in literature before cinema (Grant) Genre movies are always about the time and place in which they are made (Grant:6) “genre movies take social debates and tensions and cast them into formulaic narratives, condensing them into dramatic conflicts between individual characters and society or heroes and villains” (Grant:16)

Genre informs production + consumption, and is informed by it Genre emerges from film producers and viewers, but also informs the creation of the films. Production and marketing provide sites where genre gets defined. There is no definitive list of characteristics for a genre. Genre is dynamic Genre labels influence how we relate / watch a certain film, and our expectations of it. Other aspects surrounding the film (reviews, posters, ads, trailers) also inform our understanding of the film’s genre. Create a ‘generic image’: shapes our expectations (Neale 2003) Genres allow film-makers (especially big-market studios) to have some guarantee regarding the success of the product. “Within the context of Hollywood’s industrial mode of production, genre movies are dependable products.” (Barry Keith Grant, Film Genre: from iconography to ideology:8) Genres can tap into particular viewerships “Deciding a film fits within a well-defined genre can be a way for film critics to dismiss it, since genre films are often assumed to be made in Hollywood, to strict guidelines, as mass-oriented products.” (McDonald:7) “all genre movies seem straightforward because of their adherence to a recognisable formula.”

Generic conventions “Conventions are frequently-used stylistic techniques or narrative devices typical of (but not necessarily unique to) particular generic traditions… conventions function as an implied agreement between makers and consumers to accept certain artificialities, that such artificialities work in specific contexts” (Barry Keith Grant, Film Genre: from iconography to ideology:10) The formulaic qualities of genre films meant that studios could turn them out quickly, and audiences could understand them just as quickly (Grant:8) “Genre movies allow for an economy of expression through conventions and iconography.” (Grant). Systems of signification allows the audience to know what to expect.

A cultural hierarchy?

Historically, genre films have been derided as a lower form of entertainment as opposed to high-art, valued for its sense of uniqueness and originality. Genre seen as formulaic. (Barry Keith Grant, Film Genre: from iconography to ideology:5) “even genre criticism itself has culturally authorised some types of film, like westerns and gangster films, more than others. Romantic comedy is, arguably, the lowest of the low” (McDonald, Romantic Comedy:7) Genres allow for variation. These variations can reflect the changing times and give insight into culture and psyche (Martin Scorses). You notice changes to genre (which can have huge impacts on how the film is perceived). Genres bring with them huge cultural and historical associations.

Genre: a tension between standardisation / differentiation (sameness / difference) Genre filmmaking developed early, with producers seeking maximum acceptance at the box office through the repetition and variation of commercially successful formulas (Grant:7) Filmmakers seek to balance standardisation and differentiatio...