Normal Speech Final Review PDF

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Normal Speech and Language Development Final Exam Review Chapter 1: Language Development: An Introduction o What is language? 4 part definition  Language is a set of symbols  Language is shared  Language is conventional  Language is a tool for human communication o How does language relate to speech, hearing, and communication?  Speech: the neuromuscular process by which humans turn language into a sound signal that is transmitted through the air.  Respiration, phonation, resonation, articulation  Hearing: sensory system that allows speech to enter into and be processed by the human brain.  Communication: overall general term that involves the sharing of information among individuals, sending and receiving of ideas.  ASL, Speech, written words, crying, reading o What are the basic purposes of communication?  Comment, Request, and Reject  The purpose of communication is to provide and solicit information o What are the major domains of language?  Form: phonology, morphology, and syntax  Content: semantics  Use: pragmatics o What are some remarkable features of language? 5 features  Acquisition Rate: rapid language development “reveals the genius in all children”  Universal: every human culture has at least one language; the idea that all persons around the world have a cognitive infrastructure that they apply to the task of learning language.  Species Specificity: strictly a human capacity  Semanticity: the aspect of language that allows people to represent the world, talk about events that are removed from the present.  Productivity: the principle of combination; that a small number of sounds and words can be combined into seemingly infinite new combinations. o What are the major influences on language development? 7 influences  The language being learned  Gender  Temperament  Language learning environment  Genetic predispositions  Developmental disability  Injury or illness

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 Dialects  Bilingualism  Caregiver Responsiveness o What are language differences and language disorders?  Differences: dialects, bilingualism; something that can be seen as a norm in the cultural context.  Disorders: a language barrier that blocks someone from communicating with someone effectively through the same language. Chapter 2: Science and Theory of Language Development o Who studies language development and why?  Scientists who conduct language development research are from many disciplines:  Psychology, linguistics, anthropology, education, psycholinguistics, SLP, sociology  Research is conducted in the area of language development for a variety of reasons. Some research is done to further basic understanding of language development and some is done to address specific problems in society relative to language development. o What are some major language development theories?  Skinner’s Behavioral Theory: all learning is believed to be the result of operant conditioning; behaviors are shaped by responses to the behaviors, so that behaviors that are reinforced become strengthened and behaviors that are punished become suppressed.  Language is not a special behavior, rather it is a behavior like any other behavior humans can learn; children arrive at the task of learning language.  Applied Behavior Analysis: intervention approach often used with children with Autism based on Skinner’s behaviorist theory. It uses operant conditioning-stimulus, response, and reinforcement.  An adult or a therapist first makes a request of the child (stimulus), the child performs the request (response) and then the child is reinforced systematically.  Vygotsky’s Social-Interaction Theory: stressed the importance of social interaction for children’s language development. Argued that all human knowledge exists first on a social place and then on a psychological plane.  Contended that social interaction between an infant and more capable peers (parents, siblings, teachers) is a critical mechanism for children’s language acquisition.  Piaget’s Cognitive Theory: hypothesized there are stages of learning and development and that achievement in one stage must occur before a child can move onto the next stage.  Did not view language as a special faculty but as an ability that reflects developments in other areas of growth, such as perceptive, cognitive, and social processes.  Chomsky’s Universal Grammar Theory: children cannot learn language simply on the basis of experience because human language grammars are so complex and the language children hear is relatively imperfect. Instead, children are born with a basic set of grammatical rules and categories that exist in all languages, and the input they receive sets parameters to match those of their native language.  Unlike other theories, this does not view language as a developmental phenomenon; rather children are born with linguistic competence.

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o How do language development theories influence practice? o Applied Research:  Tests different approaches and practices that pertain to real-world settings.  Typically involves using experimental research designs to examine the casual relationship between a specific approach, program, or practice, and a specific language outcome.  Scientists who study language development for applied purposes are concerned with determining why some individuals progress relatively slowly in language development, by learning how to identify persons at risk for or exhibiting disordered language development and by developing ways to remediate delays and disorders in language when they do occur.  Settings for applied research: applied researchers usually test language development practices relevant to three main contexts: home, clinics. o Basic Research:  Focuses primarily on generating and refining the existing knowledge base.  Studying ways that children learn the meanings of words, the order in which children acquire the grammatical structures of their native language,  Use-Inspired Research:  Most basic research focuses specifically on developing, testing and refining theories  But use-inspired concentrates on building connections between theory and practice  It addresses useful applications of research findings o Evidence Based Practice (EBP):  Practicing techniques that have been proven through studies o Egocentric Speech:  According to Piaget, children are egocentric and developmentally predisposed to view the world from only their perspective.  Therefore conversations between young children are essentially collective monologues, in which each child produces a monologue but cannot take turns with each other. Chapter 3: Building Blocks of Language: o What is Phonological Development?  The process of acquiring the rules that govern the sound structure of syllables and words. o Building Blocks of Phonological Development:  Using cues to segment streams of speech  Prosodic Cues: familiarity with word and syllable stress patterns/rhythm language.  Phonotactic Cues: use of the knowledge of what sounds occur together where in words they occur and do not occur  Developing a phonemic inventory:  Phonological knowledge  Phonological expression  Development of full phonemic inventory occurs gradually  Phonemic inventory include both vowel and consonants  Phonological knowledge and production are sufficiently well developed by 4 years to provide for fully intelligible speech.  Becoming phonologically aware:

The ability to focus on the sounds that make up syllables and words through implicit or explicit analysis Influences on Phonological Development:  Native language: phonological development is influenced significantly by the phonemic composition of the language to which the infant is exposed.  Linguistic experience: develop phonological representations through their exposure to phonemic contrasts in their language. Variability in children’s phonological exposure accounts for part of the differences in the timing of phonological development. What is Morphological Development?  The internalization of the rules of language that govern word structure.  Provides children with the tools for grammatical inflection as well as a means for expanding their vocabulary from a smaller set of root words to an exponentially larger set of derived forms. Building Blocks of Morphological Development:  Grammatical Morphemes: plural, possessives, past tense, present progressive, prepositions, articles, and copula verb be  Derivational Morphemes: morphemes added to root words to create derived words Influences on Morphological Development:  Second language acquisition  Dialect  Language impairment What is Syntactic Development?  Children’s internalization of rules of language that govern how words are organized into sentences. Building Blocks of Syntactic Development:  Increasing the Utterance Length:  Most kids by the 6th birthday produce utterances that are on average nearly long as those of adults  MLU (Mean Length of Utterance)  Using Different Sentence Modalities:  Declarative, Negative, and Interrogative sentences  Development of Complex Sentences:  When children’s utterances average 3.5 morphemes in length, the art of sentence embedding emerges  Develop complex sentences Influences on Syntactic Development:  Child directed Speech (CDS)  Language Impairment What is Semantic Development?  An individual’s learning and storage of the meaning of words Building Blocks of Semantic Development: 

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Mental Lexicon: the volume of words a person understands New words Semantic Network: when a child acquires new words, they are stored in a semantic network in which its entries are organized according to connective ties among them. o Influences on Semantic Development:  Gender  Language impairment  Language exposure o What is Pragmatic Development?  Involves acquiring the rules of language that govern how language is used as a social tool  Using language for different purposes, being able to enter and hold a conversation, and account others circumstances and goals of conversation o Building Blocks of Pragmatic Development:  Communication Functions:  When people use language in social contexts, behind every utterance is an intention or communication function  Intentions you identify for each utterance reflect the children’s mental state, beliefs, desires, and feelings  Conversational Skills:  Exchanges with other people involve a communication bid or conversation initiation, a period of sustained turn taking on a single topic, and then a resolution, which equals a conversational framework.  Sensitivity to Extra-Linguistic Cues:  When individuals use language for social-interactional purposes, they draw on a variety of extra-linguistic devices to aid communication, such as posture, gesture, facial expression, eye contact, proximity, pitch, loudness, and pausing o Influences on Pragmatic Development:  Temperament: a person’s behavior style or personality type; the way an individual approaches a situation, particularly one that is unfamiliar  Social and cultural contexts of development Chapter 4: Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology of Language o What are the major structures and functions of the human brain in regards to language?  Broca’s Area: located in the frontal lobe on the left of the brain and is responsible for the fine coordination of speech output  Temporal Lobes: important for human language because they contain the functions for processing auditory information and language compression  Wernicke’s Area: located in the temporal lobe, which is used for language comprehension  The Brain: the cerebrum, the brainstem, the cerebellum   

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The Cerebrum: of the three major divisions of the brain, this is the largest, compromising 40% of the weight of the brain; consists of two mirror-image hemispheres; right hemisphere and left hemisphere.  Corpus Colosum: band of fibers that connects the two hemispheres, serving as a conduit for communication between them.  Cerebral Lobes: o One front lobe o Two temporal lobes o One occipital lobe o Two parietal lobes  Front Lobe: largest lobe of the human brain; resides in most anterior part of the brain, behind the forehead. o Parts of the CNS and PNS:  CNS: brain and spinal cord  PNS: the nerves connected to the brainstem and spinal cord o Neuroanatomical and Neurophysiological Sensitive Periods:  There is some evidence that suggests that birth to early adolescence is a sensitive period for language acquisition.  Researchers have been unable to identify a putative end point for this sensitive period because the plasticity of the brain based on experiences endured throughout a lifetime.  Although infants, toddlers and young children acquire language remarkably easily, the capacity to learn language is present for the entire human life span. Chapter 5: Infancy o What major language development milestones occur in infancy?  Infant Speech Perception: ability to devote attention to the prosodic and phonetic regularities of speech.  Develops tremendously during the 1st year.  Infants move from detecting large patterns of rhythm to smaller patterns of specific sound combos.  Attention to Prosodic Regularities:  Prosodic Characteristics of Speech: frequency (pitch) of sounds, duration, and intensity of sounds. o Combos of these prosodic characteristics produce distinguishable stress and intonation patterns that infants can detect.  Attention to Phonetic Regularities:  Phonetic details of speech include phonemes (speech sounds) and combos of phonemes.  Infants devote attention to the phonetic details of speech.  Older children concentrate their efforts on word learning at the expense of fine phonetic detail.  Detection of Nonnative Phonetic Differences: 

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Infants have the ability to notice fine phonetic detail among all world languages during the first year of life.  As infants develop and become attuned to the sounds they hear regularly, their ability to distinguish nonnative phonemic contrasts diminishes. Detection of Phonotactic Regularities:  Phonotactic Regularities: infant’s ability to recognize permissible combos of phonemes in their language.  Ex: -ps (as in maps) must occur in the syllable final position and never in the syllable initial position.  This ability helps infants segment words from continuous speech. Categorical Perception of Speech:  We categorize input in ways that highlight differences in meaning.  Infants develop this over the first year of life as they are exposed to language.  Ex: Speech and non-speech sounds, voiced and voiceless. Awareness of Actions and Intentions:  Infants are sensitive to the actions and movements around them.  By 4 months of age infants can distinguish between purposeful and accidental actions as they appear to focus on the intentions underlying the actions rather than the physical details of the actions.  This is an important precursor for language development, as they understand the intentions behind the actions. Category Formation:  The ability to group items and events according to the features they share is crucial for language development.  One of the earliest to develop.  Predictor of later cognitive and linguistic abilities. Early Vocalizations:  A more pre-linguistic milestone than infants processing speech sounds or forming categories.  By 5 months of age infants learn that their non-cry vocalizations elicit reactions from social partners.  Follows a predictable pattern.  Categorized into 5 distinct levels: o Reflexive Stage: (0-2 months) first types of sounds infants produce; includes sounds of discomfort and distress and vegetative sounds; they have no control over reflexive sounds but parents often respond as if these are true communication attempts. o Control of Phonation: (1-4 months) begin to produce cooing sounds; consists mainly of vowel-like sounds; also includes isolated consonant sounds such as 

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nasalized sounds and sounds produced far back in the mouth, raspberries, trills, and clicks. o Expansion: (3-8 months) infants gain more control over the articulators and begin to produce isolated vowel sounds; infants experiment with loudness and pitch of their voices; may squeal. o Basic Canonical Syllables: (5-10 months) infants being able to produce single consonant vowel syllables.  Reduplicated babbling: consists of repeated C-V pairs as in “ma ma ma”  Non-reduplicated babbling: consists of nonrepeating C-V combos such as “da ma goo coo” o Advanced Forms: (9-18 months) infants begin to produce diphthongs; infants begin to use jargon; special type of babbling that contains at least two syllables and at least two different consonants and vowels. What factors contribute to infants’ individual achievements in language?  Individual infants develop different aspects of language at different rates; language comprehension precedes language expression/language comprehension develops before language expression.  Expressive Language  Receptive Language Characteristics of Caregiver Responsiveness:  Waiting and listening  Following the child’s lead  Joining in and playing  Being face to face  Using a variety of questions and labels  Encouraging turn-taking  Expanding and extending Criteria of a True Word:  Words must be said with clear intention.  Words must be said with recognizable pronunciation that approximates the adult form.  The child must use the word consistently and generalize the word beyond the original context. Joint Reference:  Attendance to social partners: (0-6 months)  Infants develop patterns of attending to social partners  Infants value and participate in interpersonal interactions (learning how to maintain attention and be “organized” within sustained periods of engagement)  Infants are interested in looking at peoples faces during this stage, especially their parents.  Emergence and coordination of joint attention: (6-12 months)

Joint Attention: the simultaneous engagement of two or more individuals in mental focus on a single external object of focus.  Infants begin to take more interest in looking at and manipulating the objects around them.  Infants begin to shift their attention between an object of interest and another person.  Transition to language: (12 months and beyond)  Children begin to incorporate language into their communicative interactions with other people.  Children engage socially with other people and use language to represent events and objects. Chapter 6: Toddlerhood o What major language development milestones occurring in toddlerhood? o What major achievements in language form, content, and use characterize toddlerhood? o What factors contribute to toddlers’ individual achievements in language? o What type of words are first words? o What is a vocabulary spurt and when does it occur? o Phonological processes that disappear by 3: o Brown’s 14 grammatical morphemes: o MLU formula: o Discourse functions: Chapter 7: Preschool: Building Literacy on Language o Major language developmental milestones that occur in preschool children. Know what they are and examples.  Decontextualized Language: a specific type of language that doesn’t rely on the immediate context for interpretation (when a child wants to discuss people, places, objects and events that are not immediately present); relies heavily on the language itself in the construction of meaning.  Emergent Literacy: the earliest period of learning about reading and writing; they learn how print works, they begin to play with the sound units that compose syllables and words, and they develop an interest in reading and writing.  Print Awareness: describes a number of specific achievements that children generally acquire along a developmental continuum. o Print Interest: print is worthy of attention o Print Function: print carries meaning o Print Conventions: print is organized in specific ways o Print Forms: print units can be differentiated and named o Print Part-to-whole Relationships: print units can be combined into ...