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Chapter 1 ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

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Close connection with people Cannot be understood in isolation Closely connected with other human forums like International Organizations and MNCs IR is depicted as formal exercise performed by state functionaries such as President, Prime minster, Generals, and Diplomats. Many others like, college students, general public IR lays deep impact on lives of college students and other citizens, chances of getting job depends on global economic environment and international economic competition. IR deals with international politics, decision of govt about foreign actors. Issues areas include global trade, the environment, and specific conflicts such as ArabIsrael conflict. Within each issue of an area, the policy maker can either behave in cooperative manner or conflictual manner extending either friendly or hostile behavior toward the other nation. IR scholars look at IR, in terms of mix of conflict and cooperation in relationships among nations. Decade of 1990s saw a shift of cost when intense attention was paid to the relations of poor and rich nations of North-South region WRT topics as economic dependency, debt, foreign aid, and technology transfer.

Level of Analysis: diverse interpretations of international events ➢ Individual: perception, choices and actions of individual human beings. If a few more voters had voted in favor of Nixon than Kennedy in the 1960 election, the Cuban Missile crisis would have ended in a different way. E.g. US led Iraq was 2003, President George Bush’s desire to remove an abhorred person from the helm. ➢ Domestic Level (state, societal level): groups associations, peer group, pressure group, political groups. These groups function in different kinds of societies and states. E.g. Democracies and dictatorships. E.g. Was could be attributed to rise of neoconservative group which brought around the Bush aftermath of 9/11 attacks. ➢ Interstate, international, systematic level: interaction of states in terms of bilateral relations. Most significant among all levels. E.g. US-Iraq war could have been prompted because of the predominance of US military power. Since there was no state willing to support Iraq army, US, being the strongest military power got huge incentive to attack Iraq with no fear of large-scale military response. Nation-State: political, economic, social and cultural actors in international system. Multiple nationalities joined together in a formal political union. Nation: socio-cultural entity, union of people sharing who can identify culturally and linguistically. State: legal/pollical entity comprised of permanent population, defined territory, government and capacity to enter into relations with other states. WW1 came to an end by an armistice at Versailles in 1919. Germany was made to accept the degrading ad humiliating terms and conditions. She was forced to give up territory, apologize, and pay compensation. Coerced to reduce its army and armament in future and admit the guild for the war. Germany’s resentment against these terms contributed to Adolf Hitler’s rise in 1930. After WW1 US president Woodrow Wilson launched his endeavors to create the league Of Nations, but US senate did not approve US participation which rendered league of nations as ineffective. US

isolation between the wars, along with declining British power, and Russia crippled by its revolution, left a power vacuum in World Politics. After WW1 France regained the lost province Alsace-Lorraine and occupied the Saar- the key industrial area on Germany’s western flank in order to extract coat, steel and iron. French troops also occupied Rhineland to ensure that Germany demilitarized as the treaty insisted. Germany lost 13% of her land and nearly seven million people in territorial arrangements of 1919. This act infuriated Germans which provided genuine pretext for Hitler’s national socialists to hit back in 1930s. Chapter 2 Theories and Approaches Political Realism ➢ Explains IR in terms of power. ➢ Idealism is the response of Realists to liberal tradition. Idealism lays importance on International law, morality and international organizations, rather than power alone, as key influences on international events. ➢ PR finds politics, society in general, being managed and run by actual laws which are ingrained in human nature. ➢ In Greece, Thucydides wrote an account of Peloponnesian War, he said “the strong do what they have the power to do and weak accept what they have to accept. English philosopher Thomas Hobbs in 17th century called it as the state of nature or law of jungle in contrast to rule of law. ➢ Realists consider political power separate from and predominant over, morality, ideology and other social and economic aspects of life. For realists, ideologies do not matter much, not do religious or other cultural factors with which states may explain their action. ➢ In 2002, notable realists opposed US invasion of Iraq and warned that war with Iraq was not in favor of US. It shows that realists do not always favor war and use of military power, although at times, they acknowledge need of doing so. ➢ PR admires rational foreign policy because it increases benefits and reduces risks, addresses both, the moral principle of wisdom and political requirements of success. According to PR, only factor which keeps the nations together is the absence of all conflicting interests. ➢ Hans J. Morgenthau believes that content of power and manner of its use are determined by the political and cultural environment. ➢ Present world can be changed only through the guidance by permanent forces that have shaped the past and will do the same with future. ➢ Realists think in terms of interest defined as power, as the economists think in the interest defined as wealth. ➢ Realist conclude that priority of every state leader is to ensure the safety and security of state. Under anarchy, this objective is not possible. States with greater power are more in convenient position of surviving than the states with less power and capabilities. ➢ Realists do not consider it proper for states to rely on other actors like League of Nations or United Nations for their safety and survival as allies today may become foes tomorrow. ➢ All realists agree to three Ss i.e. statism (idea of state as legitimate representative of the collective will of people), self-help, survival. Statism

Within territorial space, sovereignty means that the state has the supreme authority to make and enforce laws. There is an unwritten contract between the state and the individual which forms the basis of the state. Its responsibility of state to protect its people within the boundaries to state, but outside the state, in relation with the other states, there are always dangers, threats, and insecurities keep on hovering the state which pose great danger to the existence of the state. ➢ Morgenthau offers the definition of power as “man’s control over the minds and actions of other men”. Power is relational concept which means power cannot be exercised in a vacuum but in relation to another object. Power is a relative concept. Survival ➢ State actors much place the protection of their ideology, national interest and national image as most crucial things of their foreign policy. ➢ Waltz and Joseph Grieco, two defensive realists say that states have security as their main concern, and therefore look for adequate amount of power to safeguard their own survival. ➢ Offensive realists claim that (John Mearsheimer) that only objective of states is to acquire commanding positions in international system. Self-Help ➢ Differences between the domestic and international politics. ➢ In domestic, citizens do not have to defend themselves as it is the responsibility of the state. International system lacks higher and effective authority to prevent and neutralize it. Therefore, security can be achieved through self-help. When there is no body for protection then, self-help is the only way out to shield against insecurity. As in anarchic structure. ➢ Security dilemma crops us when military preparations of one state cause anguish amongst the pother states and make them think that whether these preparations are for defensive purpose or they are for offensive purpose. This means that, one state yearning for security is seena s a source of insecurity for another. Liberalism ➢ A project to transform IR so that they confirm to models of peace, freedom, and prosperity. ➢ Commercial liberalism promotes the idea of free trade and commerce across the state borders on the assumption that economic interdependence among states will reduce incentives to use force and raise cost of doing so. ➢ Republican liberalism endorses the spread of democracy among states so that governments will be accountable for their citizens and find it difficult to pursue policies that promote the sectional interest of economic and military elites. ➢ Institutional liberalism operates at the level of international political structure. Liberal Internationalism (Immanuel Kant and Jeremy Bentham) ➢ Liberal theories of IR ty to explain how peace and cooperation are possible. Immanuel Kant gave reciprocity principle; states could develop the organizations ad rules to promote cooperation by forming world federation like UNO. Idealism

➢ Core principle of idealism is the belief that what unites mankind is more important than what divides it. Idealists turn down the realist’s argument that the state itself is the source of moral value for human beings. Instead they enlighten individual about the need to reform the international system. ➢ Collective security and collective defense Neoliberalism and Neorealism ➢ Neorealism: world of security. Waltz believe that structure directs states conduct. Classical realists believed that power was both means, and an end and rational state behavior was simply accumulating the most power. For neorealists power is more than the accumulation of military resources. Feminism ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

Difference between sex and gender Key actors in IR such as diplomats, etc. are men Contributions of women are denied Concept of security is not confined to security against atrocities of other nations but against men as well ➢ Security covers the concept of rape and other violence ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

First wave of feminism ➢ Industrial society and liberal politics concerned with access and equal opportunities for women. ➢ WWI, members of National women’s party protesting outside white house against undemocratic practices. The banner created outrage; women were arrested. Consisted of white, middle class, and well-educated women ➢ It was believed that when women spoke in public, it is as if she is showing masculine behavior. Campbell (1989), “no true women could be a public persuader” ➢ First wave feminists pursued the argument of women’s innate moral superiority. ➢ ➢

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Second Wave of Feminism (1960s to 1970s) ➢ Linked to radical voices of women’s empowerment and differential rights ➢ – ➢

➢ Third Wave of Feminism ➢ More opportunities and less sexism ➢ as “girl feminism” and in Europe it is known as “new feminism” ➢ ➢ Effects of globalization and complex redistribution of power, which challenge feminist theory and politics. ➢ Establishing new critical global perspective between black, diasporic, and subaltern feminism, Constructivism ➢ Basic insight from constructivism can be understood by Alexander Wendt says “500 . ➢

Chapter 3 International Political Security New threats ➢ Environmental degradation ➢ Pandemics e.g. SARS, Bird flu, Swine Flu ➢ Non traditional security threats – 1997 Asian crisis, 2002 bali bombings, 2003 SARS outbreak New Powers New Warfare ➢ Interdependence ➢ Technology creates new forms of insecurity – changes nature of warfare – making it more destructive – global security China’s Regional Security Doctrine

➢ Close link b/w economic development and security ➢ Non traditional security threats are viewed side-by-side with traditional security challenges. ➢ Common Security – achieving security on partnership with other nation states, without any nation dominating over the other ➢ Inclusive security – mutual trsuts, respect for the interest of others, ASEAN regional forum ➢ Cooperative security – win-win situation ➢ Evolving security – security depends on long term process subject to change ➢ National security – 1940s ➢ Comprehensive security – 1960s ➢ Cooperative security – 1970/1980s ➢ Human Security – 1990/2000s ➢ Non-traditional security - 1990/2000s Power ➢ State power- size, level of GDP, professional skills, capability of armed forces ➢ Power of ideas- way of utilizing capabilities in best possible way ➢ Soft power- if a state shares its values with other states at a wider scale, it would be able to influence other states easily. US has influenced other states to accept the value of free trade. ➢ Power is relational concept Assesing power ➢ US attacked Iraq, US was powerful nation, Iraq had fought two wars and had to sustain a decade of sanctions which hindered its capabilities. ➢ GDP is not always a predictor of who will win the war Basics of power ➢ Power is combination of natural resources, industrial capacity, moral legitimacy, military capability and popular support of govt. ➢ Credibility of state depends on how well they keep their promises, and how flexible are they WRT to values of other states ➢ Japan attacked on US fleet at Pearl Harbor 1941. US avenged humiliation at Pearl Jarbor by dropping atomic bomb on cities of Japan which wiped mankind from earth. ➢ Ability to quickly produce sophisticated weapons and to meet needs of the armies in a battle. ➢ Geography – important element of power – geopolitics – some use geography to enhance their military capacbilities by securing bases close to rival power. Controlling oil pipeline routes in Central Asia is geopolitical issue. Balance of Power ➢ Sovereignty and power are two main theme of IR ➢ Realist may argue that power is necessary for expansion of boundires and enhancing of power. ➢ National power – used for peace keeping as well as for warmongering. ➢ Concept of BOP provides best explanation for oscillations of peace and war in Europe. ➢ Equilibrium, when distorted, nations try best to stabilish equilibrium again

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Necessary for peace of world Is temporary and shortlived BOP has favored status quo On one hand, it is belived that it was major factor in preserving the peace, on the other hand it is belived to be responsible for escalating tension and hastening the wars. ➢ BOP is game of great powers. ➢ BOP neither suits democracy not dictatorship.

Methods of Maintainig BOP ➢ Alliances and Counter-Alliances: offensive and defensive: offensive promote war. All alliances have conflicting interpretations. Every alliance is defensive for those states who participate in it and offensive from the viewpoint of those who oppose it ➢ Divide and Rule: Policy of Soviet Union towards rest of the Europe, policy of British towards subcontinent. Soviet union has always opposed the unification of Europe as it beleievd that if she scattered and divided nations combine together to form a “western bloc”, it would prompt the enemies of the Soviet Union to threaten its security. ➢ Compensations: Divison or annexation of territory. Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, which put an end to Spanish war of succession, acknowledged for territorial compensation. ➢ Armaments: power through which nation endeavours to re establish BOP. Eats major chunk of defense budget, gives root to fear, suspicion, and feeling of insecurity. ➢ Intervention and Non Intervention: Non intervention policy is adepoted bby small states or major powers which are satisfied with the political order and can follow peaceful methods to maintain balance. Foreign Policy Determinants ➢ Endeavors of independent states which they launch to develop close relations between them in order to benefit from each other’s achievement in different fields of human act . ➢ Foregin policy is nation’s contemplation, reflection of domestic political trends and behavior. It is always product of interaction of many forces like . ➢ Foregin policy acts Formulation of Foreign policy ➢ FP are outcome of individual human likings and dislinkings. They result from its people and its political leaders, its diplomats, and bureaucrats upraised on state’s internal structure. Comparative FP: ➢ FP relation to its ➢ Models of Decision Making

➢ Rational Model: set target, assess their relative importance, calculate cost, benefits of every course of action, then pick the one with highest benefits and lowest cost. Probablities of outcomes must be kept in consideration.

➢ Government bargaining or

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➢ Individual decision making:

➢ Two options in rational model of decision making to accept psychological realisites. . ➢ Groupthink refers to tendency of group to make decisions. Groups tend to be more optimistic about the chances of success and are more willing to take risk. Crisis Management ➢ Decision in reaching consensus become highly difficult. ➢ .

Domestic Content Government structure and philosophy:

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no policy can be formulated because leading govt groups can not develop any type of consensus. During Iran-American hostage crises, there was no central authority in Tehran, despite apparent authority of Ayatollah Khomeini. Public Opinion Who is expressing opinion, what issues in, and what situation.

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, public opinion constitutes only an insignificant factor in definitions of the situation. Conflict start slowly, and drag on for years, crisis is characterized by sudden unanticipated actions, high perceptions of threat ad feelings that something must be done immediately. In these situations, . nw

Interest groups and Political parties ➢ ➢ Parliament/ legislature ➢

, considering state values, political culture, foreign commitments

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. They pass budget, regulate bureaucratic rules, make trade laws etc

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Attitudes ➢ How policy makers react to the actions, signals, demand of other states. Perceive intension of other states and define their own objectives towards others. ➢ Analogies: recalling lessons learned through previous experiences, whether good or bad. In policy making situation, unexamined adherence to analogies may lead to poor policy. May act as a source of misperception. ➢ Our values, attitude , everything is learned through experience, education and great variety of information sources. They affect the way we see things. They influence policy but do not determine it. Sovereignty ➢ Supreme authority, enjoys power within its terriotiral and geographical limits. ➢ Independent, autonomous, do not interfere in the international affairs of other states. ➢ . ➢ ).

➢ ium. These are the problems in sovereign international system. ➢ . ➢ ➢ Elements of National Interest ➢ Elements that contribute to the national power. Geography ➢ Napoleon “The foreign policy of country is determined by its geography” Size ➢ Threat of nuclear was has increased the importance of size of territory as a source of national power. In order to make a nuclear threat credible enough, a nation needs to have a territory, large enough to spread its industrial and population locations as well as its nuclear installations. US, Soviet Union, China. ➢ ➢ Location ➢ Geographical loation plays a more significant role in making national power. ➢ Due to location, country develops lumbering, hunting, grazing, crop culture, mining, commerce. ➢ Location makes a state a land power or a sea power with overall advantages and disadvantages. Natural Resources ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

Waterfall and soil fertibility, flora, fauna, minerals Rubber, timber, tobacco, hides and cotton are raw materials Coal deposits Natural wealth may attract foreign aggression and may entice the invaders to attack the state. ➢ Raw Materials: Vegetable products, animal products, minerals.

Food and Agricultural Products ➢ Food incducated power of nations, if state is sufficient in food it does not need ...