Oceanography Exam 1 Topic Review PDF

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Oceanography – Geological, Physical, Chemical, Biological, and Marine Engineering Oceanography Topic Review – Prologue, Chapter 1, Chapter 2, Chapter 3 Prologue 

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Human’s first interacted with the ocean to gain food o

Ancient Shore Settlements: Gathered shellfish and went offshore fishing

o

Tomb Drawings: Fishermen using nets 

Paleolithic: Barbed spear and gorge

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Neolithic: Bonefish hook and fishing net

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Egyptians: Metal fishhooks

Early Voyaging – Navigation o

Observation and recording of where stars rise and set on the horizon 

o 

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“Star-Structure”

Polynesians also mapped patterns of sea swells and waves

Early Voyaging – Egypt o

First recorded voyage: Pharaoh Snefru (3200 BC)

o

First documented voyage of exploration: Hannu (2750 BC)

Early Voyaging – Phoenicians (now Lebanon) o

Excellent sailor and navigators (1200 to 146 BC)

o

Land routes to the East and marine routes to the West (Mediterranean)

o

The only nation to have a navy

Early Voyaging – The Pacific and Indian Ocean (2500 BC) o

Austronesians 

Migrated from Asia to Taiwan

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Migrated south through the Philippines, Celebes Sea, Borneo, and Indonesia 

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West: Sulawesi, Java, and Sumatra

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East: Melanesia and Micronesia

They then continued East to Polynesia

More extensive voyages – thousands of kilometers

Hawaiian Islands, Easter Island, and New Zealand (triangular region)

Early Voyaging – The Middle East o

Many ethnic groups and regions were exploring the Indian Ocean 

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Travel west into the Indian Ocean and East further into the Pacific

Polynesia 

o

Easy due to the short distances between islands

Unified under Islam and controlled the trade routes to India and China

Early Voyaging – The Greeks [“Thalassa” and “Oceanus”] o

Alexander the Great: Sent his fleet to explore “Oceanus”

o

o

Pytheas: Earliest recorded voyage from the Mediterranean to England and continued to Western Europe 

Recognized the relationship between the tides and the moon

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Made early attempts at longitude and latitude

Aristotle: Believed oceans occupied the deepest parts of Earth’s surface, described the hydrologic cycle, and collected marine organisms

o

Eratosthenes: Calculated Earth’s circumference

o

Posidonius: Measured ocean depth of 1800 m

o

Pliny the Elder: Related the phases of the moon to the tides and reported currents

o

Claudius Ptolemy: Produced the first world atlas and established world boundaries 

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The Middle Ages – Navigation o

Portolanos: Harbor finding charts 

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Determined latitude by measuring the Pole Star with “finger widths” at arm’s length

o

Kamal: Small rectangle of wood attach to a cord that had unequally spaced knots (ports)

The Middle Ages – The Vikings (793 to 1066) Accomplished seamen with engaged in extensive exploration, trade, and colonization 

12,000 immigrants settled in Iceland

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Erik the Red: Greenland

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Bjarni Herjolfsson: Newfoundland

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Leif Eriksson: North America

The Middle Ages – Arab o

Preserved Greek and Roman knowledge 

o 

El-Mas’ude: First description of current reversal due to monsoon winds

Established regular trade routes across the Indian Ocean

The Middle Ages – Europe o

Venerable Bede: Illustrated his account of the tides with data from the British coast 

o 

Thirteenth Century: Compass directions were added

o

o

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However, he accepted a value of 29,000 km for Earth’s circumference

Tide Table: “Flod at London Brigge” documented high water

1300: Established successful trade routes, including some partial ocean crossings

Voyages of Discovery o

Zheng He: Chinese admiral that conducted 7 epic voyages in the western Pacific Ocean and across the Indian Ocean as far as Africa 

o

Fleet consisted of 300 ships – 62 of them “treasure ships”

Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal: Established a naval observatory and sent expeditions south along the west coast of Africa to secure trade routes and establish colonies 

o

Most responsible for the great age of European discovery

Bartholomeu Dias: First European to circumnavigate Africa around the Cape 

Sailed in search of new and faster routes to the spices and silks of the East

o

Vasco de Gama: Successfully mapped a route to India 

o

Defeated and Arab fleet and took control of the spice route and Spice Islands

Christopher Columbus: Made 4 voyages across the Atlantic in an effort to find a new route to the East Indies by traveling west 

o

Found the New World – Thought it was Asia

Amerigo Veespucci: Made several voyages to the New World exploring the South American coastline 

Accepted South America as a new continent – not part of Asia

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German cartographer applied the name “America” to the new continent

o

Vasco Nunez de Balboa: Crossed the Isthmus of Panama and found the Pacific Ocean

o

Juan Ponce de Leon: Discovered Florida and the Florida current

o

Ferdinand Magellan: Passed through the Strait of Magellan, rounded the tip of South America, then crossed the Pacific Ocean and into the Philippines, where he was killed 

The Victoria continued west and successfully crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded Africa’s Cape of Good Hope, and arrived back in Spain – Circumnavigation

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His skill as a navigator makes his voyage the one of the most outstanding single contributions to the early charting of the oceans

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Ahmad ibn Majid: Wrote several books on marine science and navigation 

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He also established a degree of latitude and measured Earth’s circumference

“Book of Useful Information on the Principles and Rules of Navigation”

o

Sir Martin Frobisher: Three voyages searching for the Northwest passage

o

Henry Hudson: Four voyages searching for the Northwest passage

o

William Baffin: Two voyages searching for the Northwest passage

o

Francis Drake: Circumnavigated on the Golden Hind, returning with Spanish gold

Charts and Navigational Information o

Gemma Frisius: Proposed the relationship between time and longitude 

King Philip III and Queen Anne of England: Offered a reward for a clock that would keep accurate time onboard a ship

o

John Harrison: Built the first chronometer 

Captain James Cook used the chronometer to calculate longitude more precisely to produce more accurate charts

o

o

Captain James Cook: Made 3 great voyages to chart the Pacific Ocean 

One of history’s greatest navigators and seamen but also as a fine scientist

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One of the founders of oceanography

Benjamin Franklin and Timothy Folger: Franklin-Folger chart of the Gulf Stream 

Encouraged captains to sail within the Gulf Stream en route to Europe and return via the trade wind belts 

o

Shortened length of time to Europe by a month

Nathaniel Bowditch: Published New American Practical Navigator 

Made the techniques of celestial navigation available

o

Matthew F. Maury: Founded the Naval Depot of Charts 

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Began systematic collection of wind and current data from ships’ logs 

Produced the first wind and current charts of the North Atlantic

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Produced first published atlases of sea conditions and sailing directions

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Published The Physical Geography of the Sea – first bathymetric chart of the North Atlantic

Ocean Science Begins o

Baron Alexander von Humboldt: Discovered a current flowing northward along the western coast of South America

o

Charles Darwin: Described, collected, and classified organisms from the land and the sea 

o

Described a theory of atoll formation

Edward Forbes: Began a systematic survey of marine life around the British Isles 

Proposed a system of ocean depth zones, each characterized by specific animal populations 

o

Sir John Ross and Sir James Clark Ross: Took ocean bottom samples and found life 

o

Mistakenly theorized that there was an azotic zone of the ocean

Discovered that deep water is uniformly cold everywhere

Christian Ehrenberg: Found the skeletons of minute organisms in seafloor sediments and recognized that the same organisms were alive at the sea surface 

Concluded that the sea was filed with microscopic life that added to seafloor sediment

o

Johannes Muller and Victor Hensen: Used meshed tows to collect and examine plankton

o

Charles Wyville Thomson: Scientific leader of two expeditions that dredged up deep sea organisms, eventually publishing The Depths of the Sea (challenger guy)

o

Thomas Henry Huxley: Believed that he found protoplasm (Bathybius haeckelli) that was primordial ooze from which all other life evolved – believing it covered the sea floor and was an infinite food supply for higher-order organisms 

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It was actually a precipitate of alcohol and water

Expeditions o

The Challenger Expedition – Led by Charles Wyville Thompson 

The most comprehensive oceanographic expedition

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Sailed for 3.5 years

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Took depth locations at 361 locations – the deepest at 8180 m (26,850 ft) 

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Now known as the Challenger Deep in the Marianas Trench

Took numerous samples of deep-sea sediment 

Discovered 4717 new species of marine organisms

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Failed to find any evidence of Bathybius haeckelli in fresh samples o

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Identified the major elements in the water 

o

Found to be a chemical precipitant

Found that the relative proportions of the dissolved elements are constant

The Fram Expedition – Led by Fridtjof Nansen

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Designed a special vessel that would survive the great pressure from being frozen in the ice of the Artic to test his ideas about the direction of ice drift 

Built with a smoothly rounded hull and planking over 60 cm thick

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Showed that the Arctic Ocean was a deep-ocean basin – not a shallow sea

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Water and air temperatures were recorded, water chemistry was analyzed, and the great plankton blooms of the area were observed

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Measured direction of wind-driven water movement with depth 

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Led to the concept of the Ekman Spiral

Nansen designed the Nansen bottle to collect deep water samples

The Meteor Expedition 

Best known for its use of the echo sounder – after WWII 

Made over 67,000 depth soundings o

Demonstrated that the South Atlantic sea floor was not featureless

o

Showed that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge was a continuous feature in the South Atlantic and continued into the Indian Ocean

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Measurements of water temperature, atmospheric observations, water sampling, and studies of marine life were all conducted

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Oceanographic Institutions o

University of California’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography (1903) 

Alexander Agassiz was the scientific director on the first ship built for ocean exploration 

o

Albatross – recovered more species in one haul than the Challenger in total

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William E Ritter, his student, became a zoologist at California-Berkley

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His field station in San Diego was funded by the Scripps family

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Transferred to the University of California in 1912

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (1927) 

National Academy of Science recommended ocean science be expanded by creating a permanent marine science lab on the East Coast

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Funded largely by a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation 

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To stimulate research and construct additional labs

Direct Exploration of the Oceans o

o

International Geophysical Year (IGY): 67 nationals cooperated to explore the sea floor 

Changes the way geologists thought about the continents and ocean basins

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Special research vessels and submersibles were built

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Data could be sorted, analyzed, and interpreted at sea

Ocean Drilling Programs 

Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP): Cooperative among research institutions - Began to sample Earth’s crust beneath the sea using specially built drill ship, Glomar Challenger

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Ocean Drilling Program (ODP): International partner ship of 14 US science organization and 21 international organizations using the Joides Resolution

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Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP): International marine drilling program involving 16 countries and hundreds of scientists using the Joides Resolution and Chikyu

o

US Earth Science Agencies 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): Formed under the department of commerce, it combined several independent agencies

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National Sea Grant College Program: Administered by NOAA, it consists of a network of 29 individual programs located in the coast and Great Lake states

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International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDEO) Multinational effort to survey seabed mineral resources, improve environmental forecasting, investigate coastal ecosystems, and modernize and standardize the collection, analysis, and use of marine data

o

Large Scale Research – Renewed due to the discovery of deep-sea vents and associated life 

Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO): Collect real time data from nearly 70 moored buoys stretching across the Pacific Ocean 

Measure near surface atmospheric conditions and subsurface water temperatures at 10 depths in the supper 500 m

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Monitor tropical conditions in the Pacific to better predict El Nino

Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate (ATOC): Measured the travel time of sound waves over distances of 5000 km

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Measure of the water temperature along the transmission path

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Changes in heat content of the northeast Pacific were monitored

Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (FGOFS): Largest and most complex biogeochemical research programs ever organized – 3000 ship days and 343,000 nautical miles o

Understand on a global scale the processes controlling the cycle of carbon and other biologically active elements in the ocean, atmosphere, and land

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World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE): Used chemical tracers to model circulation in the ocean 

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Predict the response of seawater circulation to changing atmospheric circulation

Ridge Interdisciplinary Global Experiments (RIDGE) and Ridge 2000 (R2K): Supported research into the physical, chemical, and biological processes that ocean at the global mid-ocean ridge system 

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Driven by the discovery of hydrothermal vents and black-smoker vents

Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS): Enhance our understanding of ocean phenomena, such as El Nino, and its impacts on climate can be better predicted 

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Includes satellites, buoy networks, and research vessels

Argo Floats: 3000 independent floats in the ocean, and integral part of the GOOS 

Can dive to depths of 2000 m and stay there for 10-14 days

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Measures temperature and salinity as it ascends

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Relays the data via satellite and then descends once again

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Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI): Designed to provide up to 30 years of continuous ocean measurements to study fundamental science problems

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Will consist of a network of instruments

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Measure physical, chemical, geological, and biological phenomena

Satellite Oceanography – Observe the sea surface and ocean processes on a global scale 

NIMBUS-7: Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) gives a global view of the ocean’s chlorophyll distributions and productivity

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Replaced by Sea-Viewing Wide Field Station (SeaWiFS) and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) o

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Provide Earth’s cloud cover, radiation budget, and dynamic changes in the ocean

TOPEX/Poseidon: Measure the surface height of 95% of the ice-free ocean 

Valuable information about ocean circulation Chapter 1: The Water Planet

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Origin of the Universe – Better understood thanks of the Hubble Space Telescope o

Big Bang: All energy and matter in the universe was initially concentrated in an extremely hot, dense singularity much smaller than an atom 

13.8 billion year ago, the singularity exploded and caused the universe to rapidly expand and cool as it grew large (10 billion Kelvin to 1 billion Kelvin) 

First: Consisted mostly of elementary particles, light, and other radiation

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Second: Protons and neutrons o

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As the universe cooled, electrons and nuclei would start to combine (eventually stars) 

Small concentrations of matter began to grow gravitationally – 200 million years o

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Fuse hydrogen and helium in their interiors o

Due to extremely high temperatures and pressures

The Universe – Stars are burning, and others are still forming 

Galaxies: Composed of clumps of stars – Ours is the Milky Way

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Clusters: Groups of thousands of galaxies

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Normal Matter: Makes up the world around us (4.6%)

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Dark Matter: Only interacts with gravity (24%) 

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Bigger stars = higher temperatures = heavier elements

Supernovas are resp...