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INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING THIRD EDITION This page intentionally left blank INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING THIRD EDITION PAUL H. WRIGHT Professor Emeritus School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ACQUISITIONS EDITOR: Joseph P. Hayton MA...

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INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING THIRD EDITION

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INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING THIRD EDITION

PAUL H. WRIGHT Professor Emeritus School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

ACQUISITIONS EDITOR: Joseph P. Hayton MARKETING MANAGER: Katherine Hepburn SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR: Valerie A. Vargas SENIOR DESIGNER: Harry Nolan PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT SERVICES: Argosy This book was set in 10/12 Melior by Argosy and printed and bound by Courier/Westford. The cover was printed by Lehigh Press, Inc. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright 2002 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, To order books or for customer service please, call 1(800)-CALL-WILEY (225-5945). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wright, Paul H. Introduction to engineering/Paul H. Wright.—3rd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-471-05920-X (pbk,:alk. paper) 1. Engineering. I. Title. TA145 .W75 2001 620—dc21 ISBN 9 78- 0-471-05920- 2 Printed in the United States of America 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11

2001046541

P R E FA C E

This book is intended for beginning students in all branches of engineering. It should also be of interest to high school students who are considering a career in engineering and wish to learn more about the nature and challenges of the engineering profession. The book begins with a brief history of engineering, which examines the roots of engineering and traces its development to the present day. The second chapter defines engineering and describes the functions and career paths for various branches of engineering. Chapter 3 describes the professional responsibilities of engineers, the legal framework for the practice of engineering through registration and licensing, the purpose and importance of engineering societies, and the code of ethics that protects the integrity of the profession. The fourth chapter deals with creativity and the learning process, offering suggestions on how to be a successful engineering student and how to develop and nurture creativity in engineering practice. Chapter 5 discusses the engineering design method and describes techniques commonly used by engineers to solve problems. The sixth chapter describes the ways that successful engineers communicate with their supervisors, their peers, and the public. It includes sections on the engineer as a writer, as a speaker, and as a presiding officer, as well as the rudiments of graphical communication. Chapter 7 gives recommended procedures for the handling of engineering data and discusses the application of common mathematical procedures to the solution of engineering problems. Chapter 8 is a case study of Atlanta’s Freedom Parkway Project, which, because of public opposition, extended over 30 years. The protracted controversy surrounding this project involved five mayors, six transportation commissioners, seven governors, and a former president of the United States. The case study demonstrates clearly that engineering is much more than solving mathematical equations and that engineers must be concerned about the possible harmful effects of their designs on people and the earth’s environment. Chapter 9 is a case study that examines the circumstances and events leading to the aftermath of one of the most dramatic engineering failures of this century: the space shuttle Challenger accident. The chapter focuses not only on the engineering failure that led to the loss of the Challenger crew but also on

v

vi

PREFACE

the breakdown in communication and engineering ethics that allowed the shuttle to be launched despite unacceptable risks to human life. In this, the third edition of this book, the material has been thoroughly updated, and several areas have been expanded. For example, in Chapter 2, new sections are devoted to emerging specialties in bioengineering, computer engineering, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Incorporating material written by Dr. J. David Irwin and published in On Becoming an Engineer by the IEEE Press, the chapter describes initial career profiles for 28 beginning engineering graduates. Chapter 3 gives a more complete description of Canada’s Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer and adds a new section on the framework of engineering ethics. The chapter includes the Code of Ethics of the National Society of Professional Engineers in its entirety and adds six new case studies from NSPE’s Board of Ethical Review. Chapter 4 has new sections on personality and learning styles, and characteristics of creative people. Chapter 5 gives an expanded treatment of learning from failures and a new section on working in teams. The material in Chapter 6 has been extensively expanded and modernized. It includes new material on how engineers find information, and how they evaluate and process information and turn it into reliable knowledge. It describes the use of the World Wide Web and discusses how to evaluate Web sources. It describes sources of information such as databases and print reference sources, and gives examples of Web resources that engineers can use. The material on graphical communications has been thoroughly revised and updated, and includes discussions of computer aided design (CAD), simulation, and virtual reality. Many people and organizations contributed to the development of this book. I am indebted to editor Joe Hayton and the other professionals at John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and at Argosy Publishing who brought this book into being. The contributions of several colleagues and friends, which were acknowledged in the first two editions, extend to this edition as well. For this edition, I especially appreciate the contributions of Dr. Nelson Baker, who updated the material on graphical communications and the help of Professor Greg Raschke, who prepared the section on information and communications resources. I am also grateful to the many people who provided information and gave of their time to help me with the case study on the Freedom Parkway. They are named and in some instances quoted in the chapter. Finally, I thank the many organizations and individuals that supplied information, photographs, and sketches for the book. Direct credit is given in the book for these contributions.

Paul H. Wright

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 / HISTORY OF ENGINEERING 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Introduction Engineering in the Early Civilizations: The Mesopotamians Engineering in the Early Civilizations: The Egyptians Contributions of the Greeks Contributions of the Romans Engineering in the Middle Ages The Advancement of Science: Circa A.D. 1300–1750 Advancements in Engineering: A.D. 1750–1900 Engineering in the Twentieth Century

1 2 3 6 7 10 10 11 14

CHAPTER 2 / DEFINITION OF ENGINEERING 2.1 2.2

Engineering Engineering Support Personnel

ENGINEERING FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12

Electrical Engineering Computer Engineering Mechanical Engineering Civil Engineering Chemical Engineering Industrial Engineering Aerospace Engineering Materials Engineering Other Branches of Engineering Functions of Engineering

CAREER PATHS FOR ENGINEERS

2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19

The Corporate Ladder The Independent Entrepreneur Employment Opportunities in Government Engineering and Social Services Abroad The Engineering Professor Graduate Work Outside of Engineering The Multiple-Track, Variable Career

21 23 25

25 26 27 28 30 31 32 32 33 34 35

36 37 38 39 39 40 41

vii

viii

CONTENTS

INITIAL CAREER PROFILES

2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27

Chemical Engineering Graduates Civil Engineering Graduates Electrical Engineering Graduates Mechanical Engineering Graduates Biomedical Engineering Graduates Computer Engineering Graduates Environmental Engineering Graduates Industrial Engineering Graduates

41

42 43 44 45 47 47 48 48

CHAPTER 3 / THE ENGINEER AS A PROFESSIONAL 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10

Engineering as a Profession Characteristics and Responsibilities of Professional Engineers Ideals and Obligations of Professional Engineers Professional Registration Professional Organizations Engineering Ethics Moral Foundations of Engineering Ethics The Framework of Engineering Ethics Codes of Engineering Ethics Case Studies in Engineering Ethics

51 53 53 55 57 60 61 63 64 69

CHAPTER 4 / LEARNING AND CREATIVE THOUGHT 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Successful Engineering Student 4.3 The Engineering Curriculum 4.4 Curriculum Planning and Management 4.5 Adapting to the College Classroom THE LEARNING PROCESS 4.6 The Nature of Learning 4.7 Information Processing and Memory 4.8 Determinants of Efficient Learning 4.9 Practical Suggestions for Learning DIFFERENCES IN THE WAY PEOPLE THINK 4.10 The Four-Quadrant Model of Thinking 4.11 Hindrances to Problem Solving ON CREATIVITY 4.12 What Is Creativity? 4.13 The Nature of Creativity 4.14 Characteristics of Creative People 4.15 The Creative Process 4.16 Overcoming Obstacles to Creative Thinking

87 87 89 93 94 95 95 95 97 98 99 99 101 104 104 104 105 106 106

CONTENTS

ix

CHAPTER 5 / THE ENGINEERING APPROACH TO PROBLEM SOLVING THE NATURE OF ENGINEERING DESIGN

111

Engineering Teams THE ENGINEERING METHOD

112 112

5.1 5.2 5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6 5.7

Identification of the Problem Gathering Needed Information Searching for Creative Solutions

113 114 114

Brainstorming Checklists Attribute Listing Forced Relationship Technique Morphological Analysis

115 115 115 116 117

Stepping from Ideation to Preliminary Designs

118

Mathematical Models Simulation Models Physical Models

119 119 120

Evaluation and Selection of Preferred Solution

125

Economic Analysis Other Evaluation Techniques

126 128

Preparation of Reports, Plans, and Specifications Implementation of the Design

130 130

Patenting Computer-Aided Design Learning from Failures The Hyatt Regency Hotel Walkways Collapse

130 131 132 134

CHAPTER 6 / ENGINEERING COMMUNICATIONS 6.1 6.2

Introduction Communications and Information Resources

How Engineers Find Information and the Information Seeking Process Turning Information into Knowledge: Evaluating and Processing Information Where to Locate Information and Good Starting Points THE ENGINEER AS A WRITER

6.3 6.4

Guidelines for Effective Writing Types of Engineering Writing

GRAPHICAL COMMUNICATIONS

6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

ANSI Line Conventions and Lettering Types of Graphical Communications Sketching Pictorial Representations Orthographic Representations

141 142 142 142 145 147

148 149 153

155 158 158 159 160

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CONTENTS

6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13

Section Views Auxiliary Views Computer Tools for Creating Representations Simulation and Virtual Reality

THE ENGINEER AS A SPEAKER

6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17

Guidelines for Effective Speaking Use of Visual Aids

161 163 164 165 165

165 166

Use of Computer Technology in Oral Presentations

167

Technical Presentations at Professional Meetings The Engineer as a Presiding Officer

167 168

CHAPTER 7 / ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

7.5 7.6

The Presentation of Engineering Calculations Number Systems Dimensions Units

175 177 178 179

The International System of Units Units Used with SI

180 184

Significant Figures Scientific Notation

187 188

BRANCHES OF MATHEMATICS

7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12

Algebra Geometry Trigonometry Calculus Engineering Statistics

188

189 189 190 191 194

The Normal Distribution

196

Graphical Analysis

199

Developing an Equation for a Straight-line Relationship

202

CHAPTER 8 / A CASE STUDY— ATLANTA’S FREEDOM PARKWAY PROJECT 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

Background Social and Environmental Legislation Significant State Legislation The Abandonment of Interstate Route I-485 Local Plan Development The Presidential Parkway

213 214 217 218 219 221

Solicitation of Support Design Features and Location Social and Environmental Assessment Public Opposition to the Presidential Parkway Administrative Actions

222 222 226 227 228

CONTENTS

8.7 8.8 8.9

8.10

Litigation

xi 229

Civil Disobedience

230

Mediation The Freedom Parkway

232 235

Design Features of the Freedom Parkway Congressional Approval

238 238

Conclusion

238

CHAPTER 9 / A CASE STUDY— THE SPACE SHUTTLE CHALLENGER ACCIDENT 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

INDEX

Background The Space Shuttle From Earth to Orbit Events Leading up to the Challenger Mission Launch Delays The Presidential Commission and Its Activities The Accident The Cause of the Accident The Contributing Cause of the Accident

243 244 246 248 249 251 253 257 264

273

An Exemplary Engineering Achievement

The housing for the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory at the Argonne Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois, provides a surrealistic setting for advanced nuclear experiments that have produced particular energies as high as 500 billion electron volts. (Courtesy of the American Council of Engineering Companies.)

CHAPTER ONE

H I S T O RY O F ENGINEERING

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Engineering was not spoken into existence by royal decree or created by legislative fiat. It has evolved and developed as a practical art and a profession over more than 50 centuries of recorded history. In a broad sense, its roots can be traced to the dawn of civilization itself, and its progress parallels the progress of mankind. Our ancient forebears attempted to control and use the materials and forces of nature for public benefit just as we do today. They studied and observed the laws of nature and developed a knowledge of mathematics and science that was not possessed by the common people. They applied this knowledge with discretion and judgment in ways that satisfied beneficial social needs with ports, roads, buildings, irrigation and flood control facilities, and other creative works. Historical studies of engineering teach us respect for the past and its achievements. They help us to view the present in light of the past—to discern trends and to evaluate the reasons for the great changes that have punctuated human progress. By examining the roots of engineering, we are able to sense the broad flow of history and to view the present as a part of that flow. This helps us to put the present in its context and to take a better view of our goals, aspirations, and actions (1). Our objective in this chapter, then, is to briefly trace the development of engineering from earliest recorded times to the present day. This, of course, is a large undertaking, and with limited space available, we can only briefly outline the highlights of engineering history. The reader is encouraged to consult

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2

CHAPTER 1/HISTORY OF ENGINEERING

the references listed at the end of this chapter for a more complete treatment of this important subject.

1.2

ENGINEERING IN THE EARLY CIVILIZATIONS: THE MESOPOTAMIANS

Significant engineering achievements must be credited to the ancient dwellers of Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, currently the country of Iraq. In this area, the wheeled cart is said to have first appeared (2). In southern Mesopotamia, at the beginning of recorded history, the ancient and mysterious Sumerian people constructed canals, temples, and city walls that comprised the world’s first engineering works (3). The land of Mesopotamia was open to attack from the north, east, and west, and its history is a confused record of conquests and occupations by neighboring peoples (4). The most prominent rulers of ancient Mesopotamia were the Babylonians and the Assyrians. Records inscribed on clay tablets have been discovered and deciphered, providing an insight into life in that area thousands of years ago. These records show that as early as 2000 B.C., an angle measuring device called the astrolabe was being used for astronomical observations. This instrument, which consisted of a graduated circle and a sighting arm, was based on the 60-unit numerical system used by the Mesopotamians. That system has been retained in time and angle measurements to the present day. The most unusual class of structure left by the Mesopotamians was the ziggurat, a temple tower built in honor of their gods. The ziggurat was a terraced pyramid of brick with staircases, setbacks, and a shrine or chapel at the top. The Tower of Babel mentioned in the Old Testament is believed to have been this type of structure. Hammurabi, the great king who ruled Babylonia for 43 years (circa 1850 to 1750 B.C.) compiled a comprehensive new code of law that bears his name. This famous code provided penalties for those who permitted poor construction practices and is considered to be a forerunner of today’s building codes. The Code of Hammurabi provided an important message dealing with quality assurance and professional responsibility and exacted extremely severe penalties for its breach. It read: If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its construction firm and the house which he has built collapse and cause the death of the owner of the house—that builder shall be put to death. If it cause the death of the son of the owner of the house—they shall put to death a son of the builder. If it cause the death of the slave of the owner of the house—he shall give to the owner of the house a slave of equal value. If it destroy property, he shall restore whatever it destroyed, and because he did not make the house which he built firm and it collapsed, he shall rebuild the house which collapsed at his own expense.

1.3

ENGINEERING IN THE EARLY CIVILIZATIONS: THE EGYPTIANS