Pdhpe Notes -Factors Affecting Performance PDF

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Factors Affecting Performance – Focus Question B How can psychology affect performance? The value of considering psychological behaviour in the participation of sports has grown considerably, it is recognised that an athlete’s psychological state has great influences upon motivation, interest, concentration and anxiety management. These factors are thought to contribute to performance just as physical factors such genetics, fitness level and skill. The management of psychological factors can significantly enhance or inhibit performance depending on the way they are managed. 2K1: Motivation - Positive and negative - Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation is an internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal. Motivation is a force that can be manipulated to help an athlete perform to their potentials through infusing values of self belief and support and directing this on their performance. Factors that can influence an individual’s motivation       

Level of competition and expectations Individual expectations related to set goals and targets Individual’s self esteem and performance levels Spectator involvement Motivating influences e.g. by coach Past experience Environmental factors e.g. weather, venue

Positive and negative motivation Positive motivation is related to the linking of correct and acceptable performances to a reward base. Positive motivation is a response which includes enjoyment and optimism about the task or activity. It requires continual self reinforcement and also by others e.g. coach, family and peers. It can be further enhanced by recognising achievement, handling mistakes in a constructive manner and developing respect for the athlete. Positive motivation is an extremely beneficial source of motivation as it relates to positive approaches to success. Negative motivation is the performance of a specific skill under threat of negative consequences or failure if success or competency is not reached. Some players respond to negative motivation on an irregular basis, the long term effects of negative motivation is highly destructive to an athlete’s psychological well being, it can destroy self confidence, diminish any self initiatives and belief in oneself. Negative motivation causes the athlete to perform out of fear, and hence always opt for safe strategies during a game play situations, by lacking the initiative to take risks they are unable to develop and acquire greater skills. Positive motivation is more effective than negative motivation. The simplest way to develop positive motivation is to establish gradual and attainable goals for the athlete, challenges are positive and motivating whereas threats are negative and distract the athlete from the task as they are confronted with the fear of failure. This negates main principles of many sporting activities where an athlete is encouraged to succeed on the basis of enjoyment for the task. Furthermore, positive motivation is more sustainable; giving many long term benefits e.g. increased confidence, decision making skills and strategic thinking. While negative motivation is effective on rare occasions, positive motivation is better for an ongoing basis.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation is a self propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve on a basis of enjoyment and interest. This type of motivation drives the internal desire to accomplish and achieve goals. Personal reward and self satisfaction are much stronger driving forces than anything imposed from outside. Individuals who are predominately driven by this form of motivation display high levels of mastery and task orientation. A component of intrinsic motivation is the flow experience; it represents the highest level of internal motivation where athletes have optimal concentration to an extent where they are completely absorbed in the task. In this zone, performance is maintained without conscious effort, freeing the mind of any distractions. It is seen that intrinsic motivation is an integral aid to sports psychology and how it can compliment an athlete’s performance. Extrinsic motivation is characterised by an alteration of an individual’s internal state by sources originating outside the person. Extrinsic motivational factors focus on the product, what is to be gained. Extrinsic motivation does not recognise the short term accomplishments of an athlete and it comes in the basic forms of praise, material rewards and financial remuneration. While rewards or fears may change how hard we work, they do not alter the attitudes that underlie our behaviours. Those external factors may succeed to work on a temporary basis, but has little chance of being sustained. While the responsibility of motivation needs to be a combined effort between individuals, coaches and peers, sustained motivation is more reliant on the internal forces of the individual and their own reasons for success. These athletes are also more likely to stay motivated for longer than those who compete in order to gain rewards from external sources. E.g. high achievers tend to strive for harder goals (matching with a tougher competitor) to test personal abilities and being able to accept wins and losses. However lower achievers tend to select opponents where they have definite chances of winning, due a fear of failure. 2K2: Anxiety and arousal - Trait and state anxiety - Sources of stress - Optimum arousal Anxiety is predominately a psychological process characterised by fear or apprehension in anticipation of a confronting situation perceived to be potentially threatening. At the extreme, anxiety disrupts an athlete’s behaviour by lowering the individual’s focus and affects their muscle control. Sporting competitions may contribute to anxiety because of the unpredictable nature of performance or the uncertainty of the outcome. When people realise that their actual ability and their level of motivation falls short in terms of the perception of others, confidence falls and anxiety rises proportionally. A person’s state of mind depends almost entirely on their perceptions and expectations. Trait and state anxiety Trait anxiety is an individual’s personal characteristics in response to specific situations. Trait anxiety tends to be internalised and varies within each individual, e.g. one performer may feel anxious under pressure situations whereas the other performer performs well under pressure. Coaches and athletes can manage excessive anxiety through relaxation techniques, support, positive motivation and encouragement. State anxiety is characterised by a state of heightened emotions developed in response to fear or danger. This may be exhibited through physiological responses such as nervousness, sweating and even shaking. In sports such as rugby, anxiety can develop into a sense of aggression which at some degrees, compliment the game. However in many fine motor sports such as archery and pistol shooting, state anxiety can greatly hinder performance by reducing the athlete’s state of focus and muscle control.

Sources of stress Stress is a non specific response of the body to a demand that is placed on it. It can be a pressure to perform, make decisions or complete tasks etc. Stress causes an increase in adrenaline production resulting in increased muscle readiness and contractile speed, increased oxygen supply to muscles and sweating. While placing expectations on athletes is beneficial to goal setting, unrealistic expectations can cause them to feel overwhelmed and stressed. Stress is a personal attribute, it depends on an individual’s predisposition to stressors (factors that inhibit stress), and examples include:    

Personal pressure – individual pressure imposed by the desire to achieve or fulfil goals Competition pressure – pressure exerted by opponents on the field of play Social pressure – pressure from coaches, parents, peers and others who are held in esteem by the athlete Physical pressure – the physical pressure of having to perform learned skills under a competitive environment

Athletes and any individuals can learn to cope with stress by using strategies such as:    

Practising relaxation techniques Developing concentration skills that require focusing on the immediate task rather than the perceived reaction to it Developing confidence Planning strategies to cope with the situation

Optimum arousal Arousal is physiological response to anxiety that is prevalent before an event; it reflects the mindset of an athlete. It is usually characterised by a heightened sense of awareness influenced by motivation, expectations, the competition environment and their attitudes toward the task. If arousal is not managed properly, it can greatly hinder performance, however if the level of arousal is manipulated to compliment the sport, it can be highly beneficial. The ‘inverted U hypothesis’ illustrates the relationship between performance and the level of arousal. There are 3 significant points marked A, B and C. At point A; the athlete is under aroused, here the athlete is observed to be unmotivated, disinterested and experiencing a negative attitude towards the event. Under arousal is linked to poor performance as the athlete is lacking concentration and focus. Under arousal can be linked to a lack of intrinsic motivation, where the athlete is unable to find enjoyment or positive self esteem towards competing in the task. As you move up the curve, the quality of performance increases proportionally with the level of arousal, to reach point B. Point B is described as optimum arousal. It is the point where the athlete is in complete awareness and preparation for the task. The definitive optimal level varies between sports. For example, a sport requiring many gross motor movements and aggressive performance such as sprinting or rugby will have a higher level of optimum arousal (just past point B) in comparison to those sports such as pistol shooting and archery where finesse and accuracy are required. At point C the athlete is over aroused, anxiety begins to show in their behaviour and the athlete is too ‘hyped up’, this is similar to under arousal as they are both detrimental to performance. Athletes who are over or under aroused experience problems with concentration and focus, limiting their potential to perform at their peak. To perform at their peak levels, athletes need to identify their optimum levels of arousal for their activity, and knowing how to manage under and over arousal, some techniques include relaxation techniques, centred breathing and mental rehearsal.

2K3: Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety - Concentration/attention skills (focusing) - Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery - Relaxation techniques - Goal setting Uncontrolled or a lack of anxiety and arousal can be a detriment to performance, however athletes are able to adopt various strategies such as concentration, mental rehearsal, relaxation techniques and goal setting to allow them to channel their motivation in the right directions and gain the optimum level of arousal to compliment their sport. Concentration/attention skills (focusing) Concentration is the ability to link movements and awareness to the extent that the individual can focus on completing the task rather than over thinking the task. It is also the ability to attend to relevant factors and disregard irrelevant factors, these factors can be both external and internal. The best way to improve concentration is to focus on the process rather than the outcome, by concentrating on the process athletes can enhance their technique and they can differentiate between good and bad technique and how to improve. With concentration, there also come different types that can be more beneficial to a specific activity, for example, intense concentration is needed for sports such as diving, gymnastics and golf. In comparison to sports that require intervals of concentration such as football, netball etc. Athletes need to recognise the type of concentration required for their particular sport in order to maximise their performance. Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery Mental rehearsal is a strategy to eliminate or minimise anxiety. Mental rehearsal involves the athlete going through entire movements in the athlete’s imagination as opposed to physical practice of the movements; this increases the athlete’s familiarity with the desired motion. It relies on the power of imagery, being able to imagine themselves completing the task but also the environment they are performing in. By imagining success, increases their confidence and manages their anxiety. Mental rehearsal is not only dependent on visual factors but, also tactile, being able to feel the terrain, and auditory such as the cheers from the crowd. By being able to engage on this type of level, familiarity is further increased and therefore performance can be improved. Relaxation techniques Relaxation techniques are used to control excessive arousal and to calm the athlete. Relaxation techniques focus on relaxing muscle groups, controlling and centring breathing, and calming the mind. These techniques are particularly useful before competition to release tension, it is essential for athletes to find techniques that best suit them as each athlete, depending on their needs will respond differently. Goal setting Goals are targets that the individual aspires to achieve. They provide direction, motivation and commitment to goals that are specific, achievable and measureable. Goals can be used by athletes to manage anxiety and to increase their intrinsic motivation. It is the specific nature of goals that enables them to reduce anxiety as they are tangible and can provide a focus point for athletes. Goals can be short and long term, short term goals are the most beneficial as they serve as checkpoints by which the long term goal can be measured. It is not efficient to mainly focus on an absolute goal e.g. getting a gold medal or a job promotion, but it is about focusing on the short term goals that guide and compliment the long term goal. Setting goals that are realistic and attainable can be very motivational for athletes as achieving goals can make them feel in control and capable of elevating their expectations and realise their improvements and achievements.

Factors Affecting Performance – Focus Question C How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance? 3K1: Nutritional considerations - Pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading - During performance - Post-performance Nutritional considerations are a major influencing factor on an athlete’s performance, and their successful recovery. The body needs to be able to draw the needed nutrients from food in order to provide them with energy, therefore coaches and athletes need to recognise the role of nutrients and replenish them at appropriate times. While complete nutritional balance is essential for optimal physical performance, the role of carbohydrates and fluid are the most significant. Different foods have different amounts of energy (fat has the most, protein then carbohydrates). The type and amount of food consumed before competition is proportional to the amount of energy stores available for use. While complete nutritional balance is essential for optimal physical performance, the specific roles of carbohydrates and hydration are the two most important considerations. Athletes need to consider factors such as what to eat and drink, the most appropriate time for food intake and strategies to recoup expended energy as well as training and performance requirements.

Pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading Prior to competition, the athlete needs to address glycogen stores (both liver and muscle) and adequate hydration. The most important food group to consider before an event is the complex carbohydrates, carbohydrates, while containing less energy per gram as compared to fats and proteins provide slow energy release. This means they can provide a copious amount of glycogen and have excess which can be stored. Foods such as pastas, cereals, breads and fruits are examples of complex carbohydrates. These foods should be easily digestible and the athlete should not experiment with unfamiliar foods as these can cause adverse effects e.g. discomfort and ingestion. While considering the type of food, the amount of food is also important, athletes need to be aware of the energy needs of their particular competition i.e. short distance runners will require fewer kilojoules than a marathon runner. Additionally, eating a large amount of food where it is not appropriate can cause discomfort and disrupt digestion. These foods should be consumed a few hours prior to the event to allow time for digestion and absorption, from about 1-2 hours before the event athletes can have small snacks such as sports bars, yoghurt and easily digestible foods. HYDRATION Hydration is critical as fluid is the body’s medium for thermoregulation, transporter for nutrients and maintaining blood volume. Exercising under a dehydrated state will have adverse effects on blood volume, heart rate, stroke volume and temperature regulation, this can heavily impact on the athlete’s performance, causing fatigue. Coaches use a technique of weighing athletes before and after endurance events to measure fluid loss and allow them to rehydrate accordingly, maintaining balanced fluid levels will also aid in recovery. As a general rule 500600mL of fluid should be consumed 2-3 hours prior and 250-300mL in the last 15 minutes. CARBOHYDRATE LOADING Carbohydrate loading is a technique used to maximise the body’s storage of glycogen in preparation for a high intensity endurance activity of more than 90 minutes. Average muscle glycogen for individuals can be increased to up to 1/3 in response to carbohydrate loading, making it a very effective technique. This is significant as glycogen derived from carbohydrates is the most important energy source. Previously the method was – depleting all glycogen stores through hard intensity training, restrict consumption of carbohydrates, then following a period of full replenishment. It was an unhealthy method that caused lethargy, fatigue and irritability. It is now believed that a well balanced diet rich of carbohydrates that is maintained is sufficient. Carbohydrate loading is very popular for endurance activities; it is a strategy that can give athletes a direct advantage by delaying the point at which the muscles are running out of fuel. During performance An athlete’s fuel and fluid needs while competing depend on:    

The duration and intensity of the event - moderate to high-intensity activities lasting longer than 60 minutes (including individual or team-based sports of an intermittent nature) – usually require. Environmental conditions (more fluids for hot, humid weather as a lot of is lost due to evaporation) Athlete’s initial glycogen and hydration level Athlete’s body size and metabolism

Refuelling during an event can be beneficial, especially for endurance athletes competing in events such as marathons and triathlons. The main nutritional aims of refuelling during the competition are to maintain muscle glycogen and blood glucose, delaying fuel depletion. Food intake during an event will also depend on the athlete’s tolerance and opportunities within their sport, foods that are suitable include bananas, sports bars, and carbohydrate gels. The most important consideration for an athlete during the competition is rehydration. Athletes should have a fluid replacement plan that matches their body’s requirements, duration, intensity and environmental conditions. It is suggested that 200-300mL of fluid, should be consumed every 15-20minutes during exercise. Sports drinks are recommended as they contain liquid carbohydrates and serve to both hydrate and energise.

Post performance Post performance nutritional plan aims to return the body to its pre-event state as quickly as possible, enabling quick recovery and minimal disruptions to further training plans. This is best achieved through a method called proactive recovery, it emphasises immediate refuel...