Phonetics and phonology PDF

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PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGYKey terminology  accent  dialect = a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers a) acrolect = a form of a language that is considered to be better than other forms by certain people b) mesolect = any variety of language that...

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PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

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Key terminology accent dialect = a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers a) acrolect = a form of a language that is considered to be better than other forms by certain people b) mesolect = any variety of language that is intermediate between the basilect and the acrolect c) basilect = a less prestigious dialect or variety of a particular language d) idiolect = the speech habits peculiar to a particular person variety phoneme & allophone primary and secondary articulation segmentals and suprasegmentals minimal pairs and sets weak v. strong forms vowel reduction intelligibility comprehensibility standard lexical sets

Standard lexical sets A lexical set is a group of words that all fall under a single category based on some shared phonological feature. The Standard Lexical Sets for English introduced by John C. Wells in Accents of English are in wide usage. Wells defined each lexical set on the basis of the pronunciation of words in two reference accents, RP and GenAm  

"RP" refers to Received Pronunciation, the traditionally prestigious accent in England. "GenAm" refers to an accent of the General American type, which is associated with a geographically "neutral" or widespread sound system throughout the US.[3]

Wells classifies English words into 24 lexical sets on the basis of the pronunciation of the vowel of their stressed syllable in the two reference accents. •

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Devised by J C Wells (Accents of easier English, 1982) for reference to English vowels. They are written in capital letters (e.g. FLEECE). “[t]he keywords have been chosen in such a way that clarity is maximized: whatever

accent of English they are spoken in, they can hardly be mistaken for other words” (Wells 1982: 123). Intelligibility Principle Intelligibility & Comprehensibility • Intelligibility means that “a speaker’s message is actually understood” It consists of the following: a/ identification of the words spoken (easily tested by transcription) b/ understanding the message c/ understanding the intent of the message •

Comprehensibility refers to the “degree of effort involved in understanding the message” • These two notions correlate but are not identical. • They are crucial in the assessment of a particular accent. • Both are compromised by other features, such as noise, a speaking rate, cultural differences, etc.

Accent = a distinctive way of pronouncing language (esp. associated with country, area, or social class) Native v. non-native Native – a person speaking English as their mother tongue each have a native accent (every region in England has its own accent) Non-native – anybody speaking English as their second language may have a non-native accent (impact of own mother tongue) • Native v. non-native accents • native: non-accented, easier to understand • non-native: accented, harder to understand • lack of non-nativeness most apparent in pronunciation • the dichotomy is not really helpful though as it is rather a quantitative (more or less) phenomenon than a qualitative (either/or) one. • Native-like pronunciation often viewed as the ideal despite the fact that: • it cannot really be achieved (hats off to exceptions; critical period 9-13 years) • it is not necessary for a non-native learner to be an effective communicator Intelligibility v. Nativeness Principle • The latter used to be the dominant one but the former has been around for more than 30 years. Ø In the nativeness-based approach, there is no need to prioritise which features to teach/learn (learners have to learn everything->perfect imitation) Ø In the intelligibility-based approach, the goal is “the pursuit of skilled rather than native speech” Error gravity • which segmental and suprasegmental features are the most problematic (i.e. they impede understanding): LEXICAL LEVEL: • content words are more important than function words; • segmentals with a high functional load (voiced/voiceless pairs) rather than with a low one; • allophonic variations (aspirated /p/, /t/, /k/); • vowel reduction • word stress

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INTENT OF THE MESSAGE (pragmatic/attitudinal meaning): • intonation • sentence stress • phrasing (John, said his wife, was away. v. John said his wife was away.) • rhythm (weak forms in I can [kæn] come tomorrow, in US English interpreted as can’t); Most conspicuous mistakes may not be the ones that impede intelligibility the most (e.g. /th/ often mentioned but hardly ever poses a real problem). It is crucial to distinguish phonemes and allophones (e.g. alveolar flap [ ɾ] refers to /t/ in US city but /r/ in Italian però) - Such variations often define social and/or regional varieties of English.

Common errors: • substitution target sound does not exist in L2 language, replaced by something close to it: /ð/->/d/ in this • distortion target sound is distorted so that it is not easily identifiable, i.e. it is somewhere in between two sounds: /β/ in veer or beer; • insertion also called epenthesis: Japanese strike realised as /suturaiku/ • deletion watched realised as /wɒtʃ/

Branches of phonetics Linguistics  scientific study of language  DISCIPLINES: 1. phonetics, 8. pragmatics, 12. philosophy of 2. phonology, lexicography, language, 3. morphology, 9. historical linguistics, 13. neurolinguistics, 4. syntax, 10. comparative 14. psycholinguistics, 5. semantics, philology, 15. forensic linguistics 6. stylistics, 11. language acquisition, 16. and others… 7. sociolinguistics,  many inter-disciplinary fields, e.g. language variation and change  P&P informs Ø morphology (e.g. plural and past tense endings); Ø syntax (e.g. word categories to pro’ject a ’project); Ø semantics/pragmatics (e.g. intonation patterns to indicate (un)finished utterance) Phonetics  the science of human speech sounds with no specific reference to their function in a given sound-system  highly autonomous within linguistics (true science: instruments, computers, scaled measurements, etc.)  It studies 'the defining characteristics of all human vocal noise' (Crystal 1990: 167); => phonetic symbols (IPA).  three interdependent viewpoints: o articulatory (speech production) o acoustic (transmission of sound) o auditory (perception of sound)

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Phonology  Studies 'sounds and their contrasts within a specific sound-system'  functional aspect of sounds PHONETIC STATEMENT: /b/ is a voiced bilabial plosive. PHONOLOGICAL STATEMENT: there are 6 short vowels in English. phonemics:

1/ synonym of phonology (sound-system of one language) 2/ theoretical study of phonemes

Phoneme & Allophone  Phonemes are contrastive units of sound which can be used to change meaning Phoneme is an abstract entity shared by a native community.  Allophones are actual sounds uttered by speakers and interpreted as one phoneme despite possible phonetic differences.  /r/ phoneme: [ɹ], [ɾ], [r], [ʁ]… allophones  /t/ phoneme: [t], [tʰ], [ts], [ʔ], [ʔt], [ɾ]… allophones 

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One cannot pronounce a phoneme, only an allophone; hence phoneme, being a feature of language structure, cannot be defined acoustically . In Saussurean terms, it is part of langue, not parole. keep: phonemic /ki:p/ v. phonetic [kʰi:p] transcription

In linguistics, complementary distribution, contrastive distribution and free variation, is the relationship between two different elements of the same kind in which one element is found in one set of environments and the other element is found in a non-intersecting (complementary) set of environments. Phonemes-contrastive distribution Two phonemes (never allophones) appearing in the same environment and with a change in meaning: pit and bit – minimal pairs pit, bit, kit, lit, sit; beat, bean, beam, beef, bees – sets of minimal pairs Allophonic variation–complementary distribution  Complementary distribution is the distribution of phones in their respective phonetic environments in which one phone never appears in the same phonetic context as the other.  When two variants are in complementary distribution, one can predict when each will occur because one can simply look at the environment in which the allophone is occurring.  

/l/ - clear [l] light v. dark [ɫ] till – the two allophones are in complementary distribution (i.e. one or the other). Other examples of complementary distribution: [p] in spare, supper (after a voiceless alveolar fricative and intervocalically preceding an unstressed vowel) v. [pʰ] in pear (syllable-initial preceding a vowel under stress).

Allophonic variation–free variation  different pronunciation doesn't result in a different word or meaning  The varied quality of /r/, namely e.g. [ ɹ] in RP red, [ɾ] in Scottish terrible, [ʁ] in French rouge or in traditional Northumbrian accent.

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These allophones are in free variation. Other examples of free variation: /t/-glottaling in right [ɹaɪʔ]; Czech long /a/.

The phonemic principle  Two or more sounds are realisations of the same phoneme if (a) they are in complementary distribution and; (b) they are phonetically similar (cf. /h/ and /ŋ/).  two or more sounds are realisations of different phonemes if (a) they are in contrastive distribution; (b) they serve to signal a semantic contrast.

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Two phonemes show overlap in phonetic realisation, i.e. ‘a sound may appear to belong to either of two phonemes’ Examples: o non-aspirated realisation of voiceless plosives after s: /st/ star, /sp/ spar, and /sk/ scar— possible allophones of /d/, /b/, and /g/ respectively? cf. Welsh sbectol (spectacles) and sgyrt (skirt). o /m/ and /n/ in infamous and emphatic are both, in anticipation of the following labiodental fricative /f/, labiodental nasals [ ɱ]; which phoneme does this sound belong to? More examples: o in Czech dip, tip v. pod, pot.

Archiphoneme  a class of phonemes consisting usually of a pair sharing all distinctive features except one (as d and t share all distinctive features except that d is voiced and t is voiceless)  especially: a structurally descriptive category in which a sound may be placed when it occurs in a position where it may belong to any of two or more phonemes because of neutralization or suspension of the usual contrast between them (as German t in final position where it may correspond either to medial t or to medial d)  it belongs to an archiphoneme /P/ + /B/.  It combines the characteristics of two normally distinct phonemes that cannot be differentiated in certain contexts (environments). Phonemic merger  Absolute phonemic neutralisation is also called a phonemic merger; i.e. two previously separate phonemes become one.  Example: US English LOT-THOUGHT merger. English MEET-MEAT merger. Phonemicisation- phonemic split  Establishment of a new phoneme in a given language (accent).  Also called a phonemic split  Examples: o lowering of EModE blood [ʊ] => [ʌ]-> FOOT-STRUT split o loss of /g/ in –ing endings => new phoneme /ŋ/ o TRAP-BATH split in southern varieties of BrE

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Phonetic conditioning  

Refers to the way in which sounds are influenced by adjacent sounds => phonemes vary in their realisations according to the phonetic context. Four main types: 1. allophonic variation (here dealt with elsewhere); 2. assimilation; 3. elision; 4. liaison.

1. Assimilation  A phoneme is replaced by another one due to the influence of the preceding/following phoneme.  Types of assimilation: a. leading: bad girl in casual speech becomes [bag g ɜ:ɫ]; frequent in Italian (Latin octo => It otto) b. lagging: on the site [ɒn nəˈsaɪt] --------------------------------------------------------------------------a. place: woodpecker [ˈwʊbpekə] b. manner: till they see [tɪɫ leɪˈsi:] c. energy: I have to [aɪˈhaf tə] 2. Elision  Refers to the deletion of a phoneme.  Examples: • tasteless [ˈteɪsləs]; • historically, the silent letters in write, knee, castle, cupboard, chalk, thumb, etc. 3. Liaison  Refers to the insertion of a phoneme to enable easier articulation of the sequence.  Example: a. linking /r/: here is /hɪər ɪz/ b. intrusive /r/: I saw it [aɪˈsɔ:r ɪt]; the idea of, vodka on ice, etc.

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Refers to restrictions on the possible combinations of phonemes within a particular language (accent). CCCV- in English limited to /s/ + plosive + approximant /j/, /r/, /w/, /l/. Thus stew, stream, spleen, square are possible, but not zdream. /ŋ/ in word-final positions only /h/ never in word-final positions Phoneme- theoretical perspectives

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The notion of phoneme was known in the 19th century-but it referred to a phonetic unit (sound) in diachronic comparative philology. Phoneme as an abstract contrastive unit was, however, intuitively felt. Kazan School of Linguistics: o Jan Baudoin de Courtenay (d. 1929), o Mikolaj Kruszewski (d. 1887)

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o physiophonetic v. psychophonetic alternations American anthropological linguistics o Edward Sapir (d. 1939) o anthropological focus on native American languages o important v. unimportant sound-units in language de Saussure (d. 1913) Cours de linguistique générale (phoneme implicitly present in the langue v. parole distinction) Phoneme first thoroughly described by the Prague Linguistic Circle in the 1920s and 30s (Nikolay Trubetzkoy, Roman Jakobson, Vilém Mathesius, Josef Vachek). Structuralists: focus on synchrony, on functional relationships between elements within language.

Phonology - Prague Linguistic Circle 

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Trubetzkoy’s Grundzüge der Phonologie (posthumously 1939) o first explicit theoretical account of phoneme o clear separation of phonetics and phonology (with heavy focus on the latter) o system of phonological oppositions => it is the difference between /t/ and /d/ in tear v. dear that is worth scientific interest, not the actual quality of the two sounds. Jakobson later spread the ideas of the PLC abroad: the distinctive feature theory PLC: centre v. periphery o level of integration into the phonemic system o high/low functional load Case in point: /h/ phoneme (high functional load in OE, gradually became a peripheral sound with a low functional load; hence its very unstable position in today’s English)

Distinctive feature theory Roman Jakobson- distinctive feature theory  After WWII in the USA, d. 1982.  Continued with what Trubetzkoy did not manage to finish.  Phonological oppositions: relative (not absolute) values that keep phonemes distinct, e.g. aspiration.  Next step: to establish a set of distinctive features to analyse phonological oppositions in a language.  Ultimate aim: to establish a limited set of distinctive features to analyse any language. Jakobsonian set of distinctive features  Universal binary (i.e., two mutually exclusive options) system of twelve to describe all distinctive features languages of the world.  All contrasts must be stated in terms of these features.  All restrictions on distribution must be stated in terms of these features.  Distinctive features: e.g. +/- nasal, +/consonantal, +/- vocalic  Many later modifications: more features and different labels

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Definitions of the main features are http://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~interns/eng101quiz/definitions.html

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Generative phonology Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle: The Sound Pattern of English (1968) It is a subdiscipline within generative grammar (particular focus on syntax). It is heavily based on Jakobson’s distinctive feature theory. Aim: to create and analyse phonological rules that map an underlying (abstract) representation onto a surface (sound) representation.  Examples: a. Context-free rule: in RP the underlying form of get is /ge t/, surface forms may be [t], [t ʰ], [tˢ], or even [ʔ]. b. Context-sensitive rule: in AmE fat /fat/ may surface as [t] or [ɾ] in fatter.  The surface representations are merely the tip of the iceberg; it is what lies beneath (the unconscious knowledge of language) that linguistics should focus on. Input fə h ɪz  Phonological rules delete, insert, modify ˈfrɛndz sounds. by fə ɪz ˈfrɛndz  input …rule 1…rule 2…rule N… Unstressed H (correct/incorrect) output Dropping  Example (correct v. incorrect rule ordering): correct by R fər ɪz ˈfrɛndz = Insertion output Phoneme as a source of inspiration  prosodeme: = a phoneme stretching over more than one segment of sound; e.g. yes pronounced with different pitch patterns.  toneme (=tonal phoneme): in tonal languages like Chinese, the only distinctive element is the different tone.  morpheme, grapheme, behavioureme: e.g. gusteme, kineme, etc.    

Speech production Interestingly, all the parts of the human body that produce speech do not primarily function to produce it.  Three levels of description: 1. articulatory level (head); 2. phonatory level (throat); 3. respiratory level (chest). Respiratory level  Lungs + bronchial tubes (leading to the throat)  Speech sounds are: o egressive (breathing out) v. ingressive (breathing in); o pulmonic (air pressure from lungs) v. non-pulmonic (ejectives, implosives, clicks).  Vast majority of sounds in European languages are egressive and pulmonic.  Ingressive sounds (not phonemes) are part of every language (e.g. inhaled /h/ in Norwegian) as are clicks (phonemic status in some African languages). 

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Phonatory level  Trachea (windpipe)  Larynx (the source of vibration, the linguistic term is phonation) o Vocal folds (cords):  open = voiceless sounds;  closed and vibrating = voiced sounds;  closed without vibration = glottal stop. o Glottis (the gap between the vocal folds)  The speed of vibration is called frequency ; the higher the frequency (physical measurement), the higher the pitch (what the listener hears). Pitch is crucial in intonation. Vocal folds

Articulatory level  Three resonating cavities: o throat (pharyngeal cavity) o mouth (oral cavity) o nose (nasal cavity) --------------------------------------------Ø Place of articulation (e.g. lips, teeth, alveolar ridge) Ø Manner of articulation (e.g. plosive, fricative) Ø Energy of articulation (fortis/lenis) Articulatory system

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Speech disorders (impairments) Apraxia  motor speech disorder caused by damage to the parts of the brain related to speech (stroke, progressive illness);  the patient finds it difficult to coordinate the muscle movements (i.e. the brain does not know when to perform what action);  as a result randomly put-together forms like these occur: deliberate/debirelate/deribelate/bedilerate, etc.  A special type is Childhood Apraxia of Speech : children find it difficult to coordinate the muscle movements to say what they want to say (genetic neurological cause) Aphasia:  caused by damage to the left hemisphere of the brain; language skills as such are affected (the patient is unable to formulate and comprehend language in all the forms)  Interestingly, patients are often only able to produce correctly things they know by heart (songs, poems learnt in childhood, for example)  Anomia (anomic aphasia): inability to retrieve words; patients can describe a dishwasher in amazing detail, but cannot name the object itself. Dysarthria:  speech disorder caused by weak muscles (mouth, face, respiratory) which results in articulatory problems (stroke, Parkinson’s disease, ALS) Cluttering:  speech disorder characterised by a rapid rate, wrong rhythm, wrong syntactical and grammatical phrases. Stuttering:  speech disorder caused by involuntary repetitions of sounds as well as a high number of involuntary pauses (blocks).  Synonym: stammer. The two are often confused as they both refer to speech dysfluencies; yet, a stutterer has problems vocalising their cohe...