POLS 203 Notes - Dr. Ura PDF

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POLS 203 Political Theory  fundamentally concerned with evaluations of political systems and institutions based on normative principles  subfield of the study of political science o which most classes look at why political systems and institutions work, with descriptions and evaluations  “the original political science”  Aristotle uses the term “episteme politikes”, or political science in the 4th century AD  Political science has an evaluative component  “Scientia civilis”  The term ‘political science’ emerges in 17th century in English  Political theory has been a normative political perspective  Two parts, essential to political science o Normative component  Aristotle, for instance, looks at constitutions, and gives definitions of justice and good or bad  Evaluation o Descriptive/explanatory  Empirical  Describing systems of government, institutions, leadership  Political theory is viewed as opinion by some people o Opinion is, in fact, different from political theory  There are rational, logical standards for evaluating just and unjust systems and institutions  Standards for arguing one side or another  There are no laws of political theory in the scientific sense, objectively  How arguments are more or less plausible  Besides obvious facts, the basis is plausibility.  Classic political theorists convey how they view the world and the way it works  Political science and political theory are considered fundamentally different o Natural sciences do not engage in evaluation in the normative sense o Scientists are intended to be objective and interested in matters of fact o Fact vs value o Value where it concerns definitions of good and bad or just and unjust  Classic way of political science was replaced with the modern view of science, systematic study of political phenomenon o Political science is now based in fact o Political theory is based on value

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Values cannot be determined based on which is bad or good based on scientific claims o Arguments can be weaker or stronger or more plausible The change or distinction in political science and theory began because of grant money available in research. o Political science is revenue-generating while theory is not. Why is political theory important? o Political scientists need political theory in order to do political science. o Explanatory political science has to assume certain principles that are value-laden  What to study or research and reasons why  Why does the data or research matter  Must assume certain things about people and society o Political theory is the way of evaluating the assumptions that political scientists use in their study or research. Political theory vs philosophy o Political theorists are not political philosophy o Philosophy has a different standard that is apolitical, and instead, elegant logical arguments. o Political theory is interested in politics and political questions, and critiques of systems.

Quintessential polis: Athens o The world that Aristotle, Plato, Socrates confront Many polis’ Political Quintessential form of association in ancient times Emerges in 7 th century BC After Greek dark ages, where political systems collapses and are no wider governments than household o People who rule = exceptional military qualiries Homeric era o Iliad and odyssey – written as Greek emerges from collapse Transformations in nature of association o Society comes together o Previously conflicting groups come together in central locations  They enter into fixed semi formal engagements in specific locations  Will eventually form aristocracy Poleise – plural of polis o Polis has aristocratic origins Power and influence based on control of land o Claims to nobility based on land

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o Political power based on land ownership o Primarily agrarian society Societies that depend on slavery

Lecture: 9/13/2018 Crito, background  Socrates has been found guilty of corrupting the youth and impiety  Socrates’ belief that virtue is knowledge o If he were to beg for his life or not accept his fate, he would contradict what he stands for as a philosopher o He is martyring himself for philosophy  The search for truth and knowledge is the most important thing in human life and fulfillment  Eudaimonia – human flourishing or fulfillment  We all have the same things that fulfill us as humans, defined by our human nature

Opposite of pleasure o Not that it makes us feel good o Opinion goes along with pleasure  Those living based on opinion and not real knowledge do not experience Eudaimonia  Truth is objective and virtue is objective  What is true and virtuous is the same for all of us Socrates is proving a point about philosophy o Death is a small consequence in a life lived seeking knowledge o Principles, there are things worth dying for, so philosophy is worth him dying for Socrates demonstrates the tension between living a good life as a philosopher and the political realm o A philosopher, by definition, cannot live a political life o Politics is a distraction from philosophy o If you live the philosophical life, politics will win.  Politics has coercion; philosophy is truth In Apology, Socrates feels he has been treated unjustly 

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Crito  Even though Socrates believes he has been treated unfairly, he has a responsibility to accept his fate.  Why should I obey?  Crito says that Socrates has been a critic of democracy and respects other polis’ constitutions, so he should go to them. o Self-exile is not dishonorable in the ancient world o So, Crito is not asking him to do something unusual o However, because people are defined by citizenship of their polis, self-exile is just as bad as death.  Assumption: procedural o Procedural justice -if a trial is just, the outcome is just  Two parts to the Crito o 1. 44b-48a “negative” – Crito’s argument for Socrates’ departure  Moral argument  He cites moral reasons why Socrates should leave  Moral duty, responsibility, to his friends to stay alive  Moral responsibility to your family to stay alive  The responsibilities are moral commitments o 2. 48b-end – “positive” case for why Socrates should stay  Political argument  What he owes to the polis is greater than what he owes to individuals  Those moral responsibilities are not the most important  1. Major: It is always wrong to do harm.  It is a premise of Socratic thought.

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2. Minor: Law-breaking is harmful.  If I break the law, then anyone else can break the law.  Duty: o Objective position that we find ourselves in and the requirements thereof o Each of us has a fixed role that we are born into. o Certain responsibilities are imposed upon you. o Role based and objective o Socrates was born into Athens, it looked after him, permitted him to marry, be educated, etc.  Walking away from Athens means he is not doing his duty o If you are born as a citizen of Athens and Athens treats you right, you have a duty to obey the laws.  Obligation: o A person has chosen to live in Athens. o Quasi-social contract theory o Being a citizen means entering into an agreement that you will obey the law and the enforcement of those laws. o Implicit consent – by staying in the society and taking the advantages, you choose to agree to the terms. o Two conditions  Exit –  as long as there is the possibility that you can leave, and you do not, then you are obligated  It does not hold if you cannot leave or are forced to stay  Just application of the law  If there are unfair applications of the law, then you have no obligations o If these conditions are met, then you have consented to agree to the laws and not destroy them. 3. Conclusion: It is always wrong to break the law.

Lecture 9/18/2018 Aristotle

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Founded his own school called the Lyceum He could not buy property because of not being an Athenian citizen o So, he and his students would walk around while he lectured Close connection to Macedonia o Imperial state made up of non-Greeks, Macedonians o Raised at the Macedonian court o A playmate of a future Macedonian king o Studied medicine, after his father was a physician until he was 16  He is sent to Athens to further his education  Stays for 20 years until he leaves Athens  When Plato died, he thought he would be the new head of the Academy, but he was not, so he leaves o He is suspected to be a spy for the Macedonians, so charges are raised against him, but he goes away free Many writings of Aristotle in physics, natural philosophy, various areas Aristotle and Plato have two different ways of thinking o Aristotle’s writing has a logical structure  Called the first logician o More informal logic in Plato’s dialogues o At first Aristotle wrote dialogues, then moved away from Platonic school of dialogues and developed intellectually o Aristotle begins to repudiate the work of Plato  He brings nature more into things  Since he is trained in medicine, he is interested in observing how nature works Aristotle did not write his own writing o His writing is the lecture notes of his students  There is so much cross reference from one work to another  Seems as though some people created a body of ideas from Aristotle  Very close to or a very precise replica of what he thought Nicomachean Ethics o Named so because Nicomaches produced a version of the ethics o Originally Ethics and Politics were one book  Through the editing process, they were separated. o Started Ethics discussing political science  Political science is the master science of the good  The study of politics and the construction of a good polis produces good people  Politics is the highest form of knowledge o Politics promotes ethics and virtue o Justice is a virtue  Justice is the goal of a good constitutions

o Two terms  Praxis – activity  Theoria – contemplation, project of philosophy  These two are related, but contrasting  They both produce eudaimonia  Human flourishing or fulfillment intellectually  We are most fulfilled when we engage in theoria, contemplation  The pre-condition of theoria, or contemplation, is praxis  The role of the political is to create the greatest fulfillment, eudaimonia that people can achieve by engaging in action.  Eudaimonic praxis – fulfillment coming from activity o Fulfillment of the individual – ethics o Fulfillment of the collective – politics o Whether you become good depends on your environment, that you were raised in a good environment, the right kind of education o Moral psychology that holds – if you are trained in the right way, you are virtuous. o A potential for being good or bad, or hexis.  A disposition to act o Human beings are not naturally good or naturally bad  What makes them virtuous or vicious depends on the environment they grow up in  They will be trained in the way of being good or bad  We all have the potential for virtue or vice  Repeating virtuous acts, in habit  Shaping of your character, involves the process of activity  To be courageous, you must do courageous acts. o One or two virtues is not enough for you to be completely virtuous  Unity of the virtues in order to achieve practical eudaimonia o It is not enough to know the good, you must do the good o Fulfillment with others in your community o Virtue is not a matter of subjectivity  It is an end or a goal that is the same for everyone o The idea that virtue is the same for everyone is a tenant of political thought o Telos – end or purpose o There is a goal towards which a man aims o Every man has the potential to be achieve fulfillment o The ultimate purpose is achieving eudaimonia through action o When you are morally mature  You realize virtue is inherently a good

Means, given an opportunity that you are called on to be courageous or just, you will do so.  Your fully formed character will define the decisions you make; it is like second nature  It is fixed and cannot change  Good men are always good – bad men are always bad o Aristotle’s concept of virtue  All virtues are means between excess and deficiency  Every virtue is defined by the fact that it is a middle point between two much and too little  Courage is seen as the middle ground being a coward and someone who is rash  Four cardinal virtues  Courage o Middle ground between cowardice and rashness  Justice o Midpoint between complacency and injury  Wisdom  Temperance  Three special virtues  Liberality o Knowing how to give o Middle ground between giving too much and being cheap  Unnamed virtue between ambition and the opposite (subordination?) o Not trying to do too much to seek to move yourself where you do not belong  Meglopsychia o Translates as great soul o Knowing your place, or knowing that you are superior to others o An aristocratic idea o Middle ground between haughtiness and equality  These virtues require certain conditions of life to achieve  When you have these virtues, you have kalogathia o One is good action, one means your soul is good o Having enough wealth to take care of your family, you have leisure, but not seeking too much wealth than what you need 

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Man is a political animal. Aristotle is discussing a form of political association, the polis Organization of the polis o Constitutions Human beings are hard-wired to live together in political communities Communitarianism o The polis is logically prior to the individual o The identity of citizens is associated with the polis they lived in. Not only are they political animals, but they are embedded in the constitution of the polis they live in Who citizens are is defined by the organization of the constitution of their polis Human beings are distinctly defined by the identity of the polis o Polis-dwelling creatures are different from both Gods and beasts Polis offers the opportunity to achieve eudaimonia Polis is the site of virtuous men engaging with one another in a community o Political friendship o Friendship – people of equal virtue sharing virtue with one another Human association Household – oikos o Basic fixed unit of human relationships o Aristocratic household o Head Wife Protection

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Slaves o Greeks (captured in war) o Slaves of nature  Incapable of self-governance  Lack of reason  Lack of human soul De anima o How the soul is structured and how it forms basis of action o Character itself is planted in or on the soul

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 Psyche o Soul is the basis for any animate creature to have self-direction o Soul of the natural slave is non-existent Women o Cannot have a political function or role o Are not virtuous o Have defective souls o They can know what is good or bad, but they cannot be counted on to act upon it consistently  A completed character of orientation towards virtue means you can be counted on to act consistently. o Women cannot be fulfilled in the broader eudaimonic sense o Confined to the household Aristotle believes the soul dies with the body o Physiology and psychology are fused o What you are biologically is the same as your soul Children o Do not yet have fully formed characters and souls o They are educated to form that Book 2: o Dis-analogy between organization of household and political realm, or polis o The political realm has a different set of characteristics  The people who qualify for citizenship are all equal in virtue Book 3: o Two senses to understand what a citizen is  Descriptive  A citizen is what a constitution says it is, how a constitution defines  Normative  Who has certain criteria or qualifications to exercise citizenship in a just way o Such as moral virtue o Cannot be a citizen without acquiring virtue  In order to acquire virtue, you must have leisure time to acquire that education  Therefore, must come from a family with sufficient wealth  Leisure is necessary to a good, just polis  Practical virtue – putting your virtue into action in the political realm  Moderate wealth  External goods:  Health and beauty o To rule and be ruled in turn

o Many different ways to organize democracy o Banosous – people who have to work for a living, who works with their hands  They have no leisure Lecture: 9/25/2018 

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Function of law o Penal o Adjudicative Government law has nothing to do with governance of household o Private realm is private Citizenship confers an expectation of serving the polis in some official status o Citizens will not be engaged all the time in their offices Ruling and being ruled o Citizens have the same qualities, characters o Every citizen can be assured that every citizen will perform duties of office that they would Constitutions o Just constitutions serve all o Unjust constitutions serve a specific group of people or person

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just Kingship (best) aristocracy Politeia – mixed const.

unjust tyranny oligarchy democracy

Kingship is considered the best. o One person exercises power because he is super-virtuous means more people can engage in philosophy. Tyranny o Rule by one man whose only purpose is to satisfy his self interest o Every person over which he rules is a slave Aristocracy o Rule by a small group of people who have the qualities necessary to rule  The group of citizens are all virtuous  Rule of the best Oligarchy o Rule of the wealthy and those of high social status o They do not rule for the good of all  They rule for their collective group interest Democracy o Unjust rule of the poor masses

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Politeia o Mixed constitution o Best practicable constitution o Minimally just o Office-holding = aristocracy o Large and prosperous middle class – agricultural  Those people who are stewards over farms do not have time to exercise their civic rights o Poor masses – workers, merchants, etc.  Social mobility between poor and middle classes o Avoidance of direct conflict between poor masses and aristocracy o The capacity to create a system that serves the interest of all Stability o Stability works in opposite direction as justice  Kingship is most just but inherently unstable  One virtuous person means others are jealous of him  King will be either killed or exiled  Aristocracy is just but somewhat unstable  The aristocrats, best fit for ruling, are under threat from those who are not  Politeia, or mixed constitution is least just and most stable of the just constitutions  Lack of class conflict due to large and prosperous middle class  Democracy is the most stable of unjust constitutions  There are greater numbers of citizens so it is more stable  Can restrain oligarchy  Oligarchy is the second most stable of unjust constitutions  Oligarchy can use their wealth to hire soldiers to protect them from the masses  There are still so few of them  Tyranny is the most unstable of unjust constitutions  Tyrant enslaves everyone, so people will not stand for that very long  They will rebel Tendency of one constitution to turn into another constitution o Democracies turn into oligarchies and oligarchies in democracies Stasis o Radical change Distributive justice in democracy and oligarchy o Who gets what in these constitutions o Democracy – main principle of equality  Numerical equality  Isogoria – equality of speech

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 Voting equality o Oligarchy –  Proportionate equality  Equals deserve equality but those who are unequal do not o The clash between democrats and oligarchs where it concerns equality is what causes stasis Stabilizing democracy and oligarchy o Bring proportionate equality and numerical equality to a common ground o Tinker with the constitution to bring them to a common ground, mixing de...