PSY0010Study Guide Exam 2 PDF

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Melinda Ciccocioppo...

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PSY0010 Exam 2 Study Guide Know the definitions and be able to recognize examples of the following terms: Blindsight: A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it Inattentional blindness: Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere (ie: texting while driving) Circadian Rhythm: “Biological clock;” regular bodily rhythms of temperature and wakefulness that follows a 24-hour cycle; rises in morning, dips in the evening Classical conditioning: Type of learning in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events (ie: thunder/lightning; John Watson/Little Albert) Operant conditioning: Forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events (ie: dog trick for treat) Extinction: When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction Shaping: Reinforcers (rewards) are used to gradually guide an animal towards a desired behavior Mirror neurons: Neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so (ie: pain/empathy) Sensory memory: The shortest-term element of memory; the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended Flashbulb memory: A vivid memory that is formed in the presence of an aroused emotional state Priming: The activation (often unconscious) of associations Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve: Initial rapid rate of forgetting that levels off (learning a language) Misinformation effect: Altered memory of an event due to new, misleading, information Also know the following: The differences between unconscious parallel processing and sequential conscious processing: Conscious sequential processing: Our conscious layer of processing where the amount of information we can process is limited (40 bits per second) Unconscious parallel processing: Processing that takes place at the same time as conscious processing (11 million bits per second) Characteristics of the different stages of sleep NREM-1: Slowed breathing and irregular brain waves Hypnagogic sensations: mild hallucinations Eyes rolling slowly beneath closed lids

NREM-2: Periodic sleep spindles: bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity

NREM-3: Deep Sleep Stage Delta Waves: Large, slow brain waves Slow wave sleep Sleepwalking

REM: Rapid Eye Movement Breathing becomes rapid and irregular, heart rate rises Paradoxical sleep

Time when we dream Brainstem blocks messages from motor cortex

As night goes on REM periods increase and NREM-3 sleep decreases Effects of sleep deprivation:

Theories on purpose of sleep: 1. Protection 2. Restore and repair brain tissue 3. Helps us store memories 4. Helps us think more creatively 5. Helps us Grow Understand tolerance, withdrawal, and substance use disorder Tolerance: lessening of a drug’s effect after repeated exposure, taking greater quantities to get desired effect Withdrawal: undesirable symptoms and intense cravings for a drug upon stopping use (physical/psychological) Substance use disorder: Mild  Moderate  Severe Diminished Control Uses more substance, or for longer, than intended Tries unsuccessfully to regulate use of substance Spends much time on drug use (acquiring, using, recovering) Diminished social functioning Continues use despite it causing problems in their work, school, home, or social life

Hazardous use Continues use despite worsening physical or psychological problems Drug Action Experiences tolerance Experiences withdrawal when attempting to end use Psychoactive drugs: know the classifications and physiological effects of the drugs discussed in class 1. Depressants: reduce neural activity and slow body functions a. Alcohol: slows neural processing and enhances activity of GABA b. Barbiturates: depresses the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment i. Can cause death if taken in large doses or with alcohol c. Opiates: depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety i. After repeated use can cause the brain to stop producing endorphins 2. Stimulants: temporarily excite neural activity and speed up body functions a. Caffeine: stimulates nervous system and increases heart and breathing rates to create a burst of energy that lasts about 3-4 hours b. Nicotine: triggers the release of epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and endorphins c. Cocaine: blocks the reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine causing an immediate euphoria followed by a crash d. Methamphetamine: triggers the release of dopamine which enhances mood and energy i. After repeated use the brain stops naturally producing as much dopamine e. MDMA/Ecstasy/Molly: stimulant and mild hallucinogen; triggers release of dopamine and serotonin and blocks reuptake of serotonin i. Dehydrating effect; can damage serotonin producing neurons 3. Hallucinogens: distort perceptions and evoke sensory perception in the absence of sensory input (hallucinations) a. LSD: Blocks the actions of a subtype of serotonin; emotional reactions can range from euphoria to detachment to panic depending on the user’s current mood b. Marijuana: major active ingredient (THC) causes similar effects to alcohol but is also a mild hallucinogen i. Heavy use can lead to shrinkage of brain areas that process memories and emotions; amplifies senses Biological, psychological, and environmental influences on drug use

Be able to identify the US, UR, NS, CS, and CR in an example of classical conditioning 1. US elicits a UR Naturally occurring cause and effect 2. Pair NS and US repeatedly 3. Test to see if NS alone produces response If it does: NS  CS UR  CR (in response to CS) Examples: 1. After a painful cavity filling, you hear someone drilling outside and wince in pain. What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)? A. Cavity filling; B. Pain; C. Sound of the dentist’s drill 2. After watching Jaws devour innocent beachgoers in a movie, you hear the theme song from Jaws and feel apprehensive. What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)? A. Jaws devouring people; B. Jaws theme song; C. Feeling apprehensive Appropriate elements for successful acquisition of a learned response using classical conditioning Initial learning of stimulus-response relationship Order: NS must precede US Timing: NS and US presented close together (about half a second) Be able to identify examples of positive and negative reinforcement and punishment Reinforcement: Any event that INCREASES the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. We should ONLY reinforce desirable behaviors. Examples of Negative Reinforcements: 1. Taking Tylenol to relieve a headache. 2. Opening an umbrella in the rain. 3. Pressing the snooze button on the alarm 4. Taking a drug when experiencing symptoms of withdrawal. Punishment: Any event that DECREASES the likelihood that a behavior will occur again Identify examples of schedules of reinforcement and know the response pattern associated with each schedule Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response every time it occurs; good for initial learning Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only some of the time; though this results in slower acquisition, it reduces the likelihood of extinction Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (ie: coffee shop reward card) Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses; hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability (ie: slot machines) Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs only after a specified time has elapsed (ie: paycheck) Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable, varying amount of time intervals (ie: getting e-mail) How to effectively use operant conditioning to shape behavior Reinforcement vs punishment Reward good behavior rather than punishing bad behavior Be specific about behaviors and their consequences Restraints on conditioning discussed in class Classical conditioning: Animals more easily learn associations that are ecologically relevant

Operant conditioning: Animals more easily learn and retain behaviors that reflect biological predispositions Differences between recall, recognition, and relearning Recall: ability to recall something directly from memory Recognition: being able to identify a correct response, given multiple options Relearning: reviewing something a second time in its entirety Differences between implicit and explicit memories (be able to identify examples)

Areas of the brain responsible for storage of implicit and explicit memories (See above) Effortful processing strategies (be able to identify examples of different strategies) Chunking Mnemonics Acronyms= chunking + mnemonics Distributed practice Spacing effect Testing effect Levels of processing (deep vs. shallow) Shallow processing: encoding on a basic level, such as the structure or appearance of words or the word’s sound Deep processing: encoding based on the meaning of the word Make material meaningful Know the difference between context-dependent, state-dependent, and mood-congruent memory Context-dependent memory: enhanced recall in same or similar context in which info was encoded State-dependent memory: enhanced recall in same or similar state as when info was encoded Mood-congruent memory: memory encoded with current mood Recall of experiences consistent with current mood Primacy and recency effects (What they are and when they occur) Primacy effect: greater recall for first items due to longer rehearsal time Recency effect: greater recall for later items because fresh in memory Difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia (identify example) Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new memories Retrograde amnesia: inability to remember info stored in long-term memory Causes of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon and déjà vu Interference: other stored info can disrupt retrieval Proactive interference: prior learning disrupts recall of new info Retroactive interference: new learning disrupts recall of old info

Source amnesia: attributing an event we have heard about, read about, or imagined to the wrong source Déjà vu: the sense that we have seen something or experienced something before...