PSY205 Revision Notes PDF

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PSY205 Revision Notes Mr. Justus Wee Study Unit 1: Social Thinking (chapters Study Unit 2: Social Influence (chapters Study Unit 3: Social Relations (chapters EXAM TIPS: Identify all concepts for all chapters, define them in layman terms, describe research (if applicable), think about examples to il...

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PSY205 Revision Notes Mr. Justus Wee [email protected] Study Unit 1: Social Thinking (chapters 2-4) Study Unit 2: Social Influence (chapters 6-7) Study Unit 3: Social Relations (chapters 9-12) EXAM TIPS:  Identify all concepts for all chapters, define them in layman terms, describe research (if applicable), think about examples to illustrate them TMA01:  Come up with structure for next seminar  Relevant concepts & theories (at least 3 detailed – try to relate to the topic) o Describing & defining does not give many marks o Application would give more marks  Examples can be found in TB – experiments, related studies, cite original citations  Should we use other concepts? Just because they fulfill the requirements, doesn’t mean we should be using them  Don’t use speech techniques – content is more important  Focus on inaccuracies, can give balanced views as well TMA02:  Refer to seminar slides on aggression Part (a)  Address occurrences of sexual harassment (what is sexual harassment?)  Write 2-3 types of theories: e.g., biological, learned, frustration-aggression (which is more applicable/critical?) Part (b)  Recommended article provides some tips on how to prevent aggression  Tackle influences of aggression (what do these theories say about why aggression occur) o Target basic blocks (the ‘how’) – e.g., positive role model o Identify influences  Propose specific strategies to tackle each influence o Theories used in (b) must have appeared in (a) o Strategies that can be implemented in institutional (e.g., companies) and community settings

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Seminar 1 Ten statements “Who Am I” test (general test on independent vs. interdependent) o West: Gives individual attributes (e.g., “I am an introvert” “I am patient”) o East: Gives relational answers (e.g., “I am a student” “I am a sister/brother” Rating comics – facial feedback hypothesis

Seminar 2 Group Discussion 1. Cognitive Dissonance  Mismatch between attitudes and behaviours – behaviours are fixed and difficult to change, as compared to attitudes 2. Fundamental Attribution Error  2 different causes you can explain behaviour  Person (internal/dispositional) vs. Environment (external/situational) 3. Self-fulfilling Prophecy  Teacher & student example 4. Misinformation Effect  False memories implanted because of certain circumstances or the way people phrase their questions  Lead by expectations of questioner (leading questions that could generate false memories) 5. Illusory Correlation  Perceiving a false association/relationship between 2 variables such as the words/actions performed (e.g., jinxes, taboos) and the ‘consequence’ 6. Confirmation Bias  Seeking information that reinforces one’s beliefs, and ignoring irrelevant ones 7. Belief Perseverance  E.g., superstitions, environmental changes (Trump)  System 1 is used more often  Words remembered can change judgements of person (we judge people based on the words we have in our mind)  **Intuitive judgements  Temporal states of how we feel

PSY205 Revision Notes

Seminar 3 Group Discussion 1. Acceptance vs. Compliance  2. Sherif’s Experiments and the Autokinetic Phenomenon  People in groups tend to converge answers over time, as compared to individuals  Demonstrates conformity – informational influences 3. Asch’s Experiment  Demonstrates conformity – normative influences (some informational aspects) 4. Informational & Normative Influences  Informational – seeks information from others/surroundings  Normative – within self 5. Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion  Depends on content/audience you’re trying to persuade 6. The Elaboration Likelihood Model** (came out in past exam, but not in tb)  When are we likely to use central/peripheral routes  E.g., elaborating more on product, more likely to use central route 7. Sleeper Effect  When a persuasive message is from a dubious source, over time, you will forget the source of the message, but only remember the message content. Hence, the content begins to have more weight over your decisions. 8. Attitude Inoculation: Attitude inoculation is a technique used to make people immune to attempts to change their attitude by first exposing them to small arguments against their position.  Presents weak arguments that defend your position, in the midst of doing so, you begin to develop positions against such topics, and when a stronger argument comes along, you will have a better argument against it. Seminar 4 Group Discussion 1. Out-group Homogeneity Effect  Tendency to view out-group members as being the same 2. Just-world Phenomenon  Not a matter of luck, there is a certain reason that caused you to have this experience 3. Realistic Group Conflict Theory  When there are limited resources, majority tend to have hostility against minority  Creates division between in-group & out-group members  E.g., competition between locals & foreigners for jobs 4. Social Identity Theory  How we can predict behaviour based on what group they belong to  We tend to learn behaviours of our self-identified group  Compares between in-group and out-group – tend to devalue other groups to feel better  Self-concept – we view ourselves as certain people + Group-concept – feeling a sense of accomplishment when the group does well 5. Stereotype Threat  Awareness of stereotype might activate it  Feeling threatened by the stereotype  Pressure in trying not to fulfill the stereotype  Do worse 6. Social Learning Theory of Aggression  Individuals tend to mimic behaviours from others  E.g., Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment (learn + add on own actions) 7. Frustration-aggression Theory  Old: Frustrated from blockages in goal-directed behaviour  Revised: Frustration + adequate upset (negative emotional response) = aggression 8. The Arousal-Affect Model of Aggression (not in TB)  Low physiological arousals + positive emotions  low intensity of aggression  High physiological arousals + negative emotions  high intensity of aggression Seminar 5 Group Discussion  Reciprocal Altruism o  Social-exchange Theory o Cost-benefit analysis – will help only when benefits are greater than cost o Implicitly assigning cost & benefits (e.g., internal rewards – feeling good)  Social Norms in Helping o Expectation/perception that when you help someone, they would return the favour as well

PSY205 Revision Notes

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o Norms shape our behaviour Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis o When you see someone in trouble, you feel a sense of empathy and compassion for the individual o Helping behaviour is grounded in one’s empathy toward others Bystander Effect o Factors: relationship with victim, culture, numbers o Diffusion of responsibility Pluralistic Ignorance o Assumes that everyone understands, and only you don’t understand Diffusion of Responsibility o A person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when others are present o When people who need to make a decision wait for someone else to act instead. o Factors: Distance between you & individual in distress (feel less directly responsible/incline to help); Numbers o Example: Bystander effect Seminar 6 Need for Affiliation Mere Exposure Effect o If you are exposed to something, you will like it more Physical-attractiveness Stereotype o Matching Hypothesis o We have an idea of a prospective partner, and we would search for someone similar to us o Composite of qualities that makes one more attractive Evolutionary Perspective on Mate Preferences o Males are attracted to females based on physical attractiveness, while females are attracted to males based on qualities (e.g., status, ability to provide) Attachment Styles o Secure, avoidant, anxious Triangular Theory of Love o Intimacy, passion, commitment (3 components that interact with one another) Implicit Theories of Relationships o Schematic knowledge structures that involve specific beliefs (destiny – fate strengthens r/s vs. growth – conflicts strengthen r/s) o Whether things can change or are they fixed

Unit

Main Themes to Study/Memorize

PSY205 Revision Notes: Chapter 1 CHAPTER 1: Introducing Social Psychology What is Social Psychology? Definition: The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.  Social thinking – how we perceive ourselves and others, what we believe, judgements we make, our attitudes  Social influence – culture, pressures to conform, persuasion, groups of people  Social relations – prejudice, aggression, attraction and intimacy, helping  Focuses more on individuals, less on individuals’ differences, and does more experimentation Fundamental Principles of Social Psychology Social psychology’s principles are applicable in everyday life  Have implications for human health and well-being, for judicial procedures and juror decisions in courtrooms, and for influencing behaviours that will enable an environmentally sustainable human future. Social 1. We construct our social reality Thinking  Humans tend to explain behaviour, to attribute it to some cause, and therefore to make it seem orderly, predictable, and controllable  People react differently to a situation because we think differently  There is an objective reality out there, but we always view it through the lens of our beliefs and values (which influences our emotions and actions)

Social Influence

Social Relations

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Our social intuitions (and unconscious information processing) are often powerful, but sometimes perilous  Our instant intuitions shape our fears, impressions, and relationships  Dual processing: Thinking, memory, and attitudes all operate on two levels – one conscious and deliberate, the other unconscious and automatic  However, we intuitively judge the likelihood of things by how easily various instances come to mind; we intuitively trust our memories more than we should; we misread our own minds; we mispredict our own feelings and future

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Attitudes shape, and are shaped by behaviour Social influences shape behaviour  As social creatures, we respond to our immediate contexts. Sometimes the power of a social situation leads us to act contrary to our expressed attitudes (e.g., Nazi’s influence)  Our cultures help define our situations (e.g., our standards regarding promptness, frankness, and clothing vary with our culture)  We adapt to our social context – our attitudes and behaviour are shaped by external social forces

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Dispositions shape behaviour  Internal forces matter – personal attitudes and personality influence behaviour Social behaviour is also biological behaviour  Nature and nurture forms who we are  Evolutionary psychologists o Inherited human nature predisposes us to behave in ways that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce o Natural selection – how our actions and reactions are predisposed o Nature endows us with an enormous capacity to learn and adapt to varied environments  Social neuroscience o Definition: An interdisciplinary field that explores the neural bases of social and emotional processes and behaviours, and how these processes and behaviours affect our brain and biology o We are bio-psycho-social organisms. We reflect the interplay of our biological, psychological, and social influences.

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Feelings and actions toward people are sometimes negative and sometimes positive Human Values Influence Social Psychology Obvious ways values enter psychology Subtle ways values enter psychology  Subjective aspects of science Choices of research topics typically reflect social history o We interpret nature with our own mental categories Values differ across time and cultures Values influence the types of people who are attracted to and preconceptions various disciplines o The tendency to prejudge reality based on our Values are the object of social psychological analysis – expectations is a basic fact about the human mind social psychologists investigate how values form, why they o Social representations are often our most important change, and how they influence attitudes and actions yet most unexamined convictions (e.g., assumptions, cultural ideologies, biases, stereotypes)  Psychological concepts contain hidden values o Psychologists make value judgements (often hidden

PSY205 Revision Notes: Chapter 1 within our social psychological language) o Reflected by psychological advice o Forms concepts (label reflects judgements) Social Psychology’s Theories Provide New Insight into the Human Condition 2 contradictory criticisms: 1. It is trivial because it documents the obvious  Hindsight bias: The tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one’s ability to have foreseen how something turned out. Also known as the I-knew-it- all-along phenomenon)  In hindsight, events seem obvious and predictable  Can result in unfortunate consequences o Conducive to arrogance – an overestimation of our own intellectual powers o Outcomes seem as if they should have been foreseeable, hence we are more likely to blame decision makers for what are in retrospect “obvious” bad choices than to praise them for good choices, which also seem “obvious.” 2.

It is dangerous because its findings could be used to manipulate people (Chapter 7) Research Methods Social psychologists propose theories that organize their observations and imply testable hypotheses and practical predictions. To test a hypothesis, social psychologists may do research that predicts behaviour using correlational studies, often conducted in natural settings. Or they may seek to explain behaviour by conducting experiments that manipulate one or more factors under controlled conditions. Then they may explore ways to apply their findings to improve people’s everyday lives. Theory Definition: An integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events  Facts are agreed-upon statements about what we observe, while theories are idea that summarize and explain facts, as well as imply testable predictions (known as hypotheses)  A good theory effectively summarizes many observations, and makes clear predictions that we can use to confirm/modify the theory, generate new exploration, and suggest practical applications. Hypothesis Definition: A testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events  Serves several purposes o Allow us to test a theory by suggesting how we might try to falsify it o Predictions give direction to research o The predictive feature of good theories can also make them practical Social psychological research varies by location (laboratory vs. field), and methods (correlational vs. experimental) Field Research Definition: Research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory Definition: The study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables Correlational Research  Correlations indicate a relationship, but that relationship is not necessarily one of cause and effect  Correlational research allows us to predict, but it cannot tell us whether changing one variable (such as social status) will cause changes in another (such as health)  Advanced correlational techniques can suggest cause-effect relationships (e.g., time-lagged correlations reveal the sequence of events) 

Experimental Research

Advantage: Tends to occur in real-world settings where we can examine factors such as race, gender, and social status (factors that we cannot manipulate in the laboratory)  Disadvantage: Ambiguity of the results Definition: Studies that seek clues to cause–effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant)   

Survey Research

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Independent variable: The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates Dependent variable: The variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable Control vs. Random assignment (The process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition) Advantage: Can explore cause and effect by controlling variables and by random assignment Disadvantage: Some important variables cannot be studied with experiments Random sampling: Survey procedure inwhich every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion

4 potentially biasing influences: 1. Unrepresentative samples – A sampling may not be representative of the entire population 2. Question order 3. Response options 4. Question wording – Subtle changes in the tone of a question can have marked effects Ethics of Experimentation

PSY205 Revision Notes: Chapter 1 Mundane Realism Experimental Realism

Demand Characteristics Ethical Principles

Definition: Degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations  Laboratory behaviour or experiments need not have mundane realism, but should have experimental realism Definition: Degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants  Experimenters do not want their people consciously play-acting or ho-humming it; they want to engage real psychological processes  Achieving this realism sometimes requires deception (In research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study’s methods and purposes) Definition: Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behaviour is expected  To minimize such demand characteristics, experimenters typically standardize their instructions or even use a computer to present them  Tell potential participants enough about the experiment to enable their informed consent.  Be truthful. Use deception only if essential and justified by a significant purpose and not “about aspects that would affect their willingness to participate.”  Protect participants (and bystanders, if any) from harm and significant discomfort.  Treat information about the individual participants confidentially.  Debrief participants. Fully explain the experiment afterward, including any deception. The only exception to this rule is when the feedback would be distressing, such as by making participants realize they have been stupid or cruel.

PSY205 Revision Notes: Chapter 2 CHAPTER 2: The Self in a Social World

Spotlight Effect

Spotlight Effect and Illusion of Transparency Definition: The belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behaviour than they really are Definition: The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others

Illusion of Transparency  Social surroundings affect our self-awareness  Self-interest colors our social judgment – when problems arise, we tend to attribute responsibility to others; when things go well, we tend to see ourselves as more responsible  Self-concern motivates our social behaviour  Social relationships help define our sense of self – we have varied selves in varied relationships Self-Concept Self-Concept Definition: What we know and believe about ourselves  Consists 2 elements – self-schema, and possible selves  Sum of self-schemas form our self-concept  Mark and mirror test – putting a mark on their forehead (infants are able to recognize themselves between 18 and 24 months) Self-Schema Definition: Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information  Mental templates by which we organize our worlds  Affects how we perceive, remember, and evaluate other people and ourselves (e.g., an athlete would tend to notice others’ bodies and skills)  The self-schemas that make up our self-concepts help us organize and retrieve our experiences Possible selves Definition: Images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future  Motivates us with a vision of the life we long for OR to avoid the one we dread Development of the Social Self Our self-concepts are determined by genetic influences on persona...