PSY205 - Study notes PDF

Preview

Summary

PSYStudy Unit 1 — Social ThinkingLearning Outcomes Chapters Covered Anticipate the scope and focus of the course and begin planning your course of study.  Briefly explain the definition of social psychology.  Explain the various conceptions of self in different cultures.  Explain the differences...

Description

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020)

PSY205 Study Unit 1 — Social Thinking

Learni ngOut comes    



Anticipate the scope and focus of the course and begin planning your course of study. Briefly explain the definition of social psychology. Explain the various conceptions of self in different cultures. Explain the differences between the interdependent and independent views of Self. Explain the importance of self-serving bias.

Chapt ersCovered

Refer to textbook – Myers & Twenge, 2016  Chapter 2  Chapter 3  Chapter 4

Whati sSoci alPsychol ogy? Social psychology is the scientific study of the influences of our situations, with special attention to how we view, affect, and relate to one another. Central themes concern the following: 1. How we construe our social worlds 2. How our social institutions guide and sometimes deceive us 3. How our social behavior is shaped by: a. [External Factors] Other People b. [Internal Factors] Our Own i. Attitudes ii. Personalities iii. Biology 4. How social psychology’s principles apply to our everyday lives and to various other fields of study

How doe sSoci alPs y chol ogydi fferf rom s oci ol ogy ? Sociology refers to the study of people in groups & societies Social Psychology on the other hand, focuses more on the individual & involves more experimentation

Ho w wec o ns t r uc to urs o c i alr e al i t y 

We are all intuitive scientists — People have an irresistible urge to explain behavior, to attribute it to some cause, and therefore to make it seem orderly, predictable, and controllable.

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020) 

The is an objective reality out there, but we always view it through the lens of our beliefs and values o Biases are always present

Sel f Schemas|Sel f Concept Beliefs by which we define and perceive ourselves, which guide the processing of relevant information. 

Individuals tend to favor information which is consistent with our selfschemas o e.g. An individual who believes that he is great at math will find it easier to recall math-related concepts. On the other hand, an individual who believes she is terrible at math will find it harder to recall math-related concepts

Ours el f s chemasarei nfluencedby… 1. Social comparisons a. The process of evaluating one’s abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others 2. The roles we play a. Our social identities b. Our success and failures 3. The judgement of other people a. Or rather, our own perception of how others view us (looking-glass self) 4. Our cultures a. Individualistic b. Collectivistic 5. Biology a. Our inherited human nature predisposes us to behave in ways that helped our ancestors survive & reproduce

1.Soci alCompari sons The process of evaluating one’s abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others. Upwardcompari son May lead to diminished satisfaction with oneself. When comparing upwards, we tend to perceive our competitors as advantaged to protect our shaky selfconcept. Upward comparison occurs mostly when we experience success (i.e. increase in affluence, status, or achievement)

Downwardcompari s on May lead to increased satisfaction with oneself. Comparing downwards may make us feel superior. Hence, we sometimes take pleasure in our peers’ failures.  e.g. When mixing in a group of dull individuals, we may feel more interesting / humorous in comparison.

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020)

2.Therol eswepl ay In our varied relationships, we have varying selves. We may be one ‘self’ with Mom, another with friends, another with teachers. How we think of ourselves is linked to the person we’re with at the moment. And when relationships change, our self-concepts can change as well. 

College students who recently broke up with a romantic partner shifted their self-perceptions and felt less certain about who they were—one reason breakups can be so emotionally distressing (Slotter et al., 2010).

3.Thej udgementofot herpeopl e Looking-glass self The “looking-glass self” theory by Cooley (1902) states that our perception of ourselves is shaped by how others perceive us. “ Ours e l f c o nc e pti sde r i ve df r om o uri nt e r pr e t at i onofhow o t he r spe r c e i veus ”

4.Ourcul t ure Our concept of self is also strongly influenced by the culture that surrounds us. Culture refers to the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. Generally, the Eastern culture possesses more collectivistic traits, & the Western culture possesses more individualistic traits.

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020)

I ndi vi dual i st i c People are generally more self-reliant and independent. Priority is given to an individual’s own goals. Identity is defined in terms of personal attributes rather than group identification.  e.g. I’m a person who is great at xxx & possesses xxx attributes. Self-esteem is more personal and less relational. Hence, a threat to personal identity would lead to more aggressive and gloomier repercussions as opposed to a threat to a collective identity. More persistent in pursuing goals while they are succeeding as success elevates self-esteem.

Col l ect i vi s t i c People are generally more self-critical and interdependent. Priority is given to group goals, including those of extended family or work groups. Meaning that there is more emphasis on the role played by the individual, & the responsibilities that come along with it, rather than the individual. Sense of identity is derived from the groups that the individual belongs to, rather than personal attributes.  e.g. In in my friend group, I play the role of the fun-loving, humorous friend. At work, I play the role of the xxx. More persistent in pursuing goals when faced with the threat of failure due to obligations to meet others’ expectations.

How pol i t i calvi ewsarei nfluencedbyi ndi vi dual i smcol l ect i vi sm Individualism–collectivism also varies across a country’s political views and regions.    

Conservatives tend to be economic individualists (“don’t tax or regulate me”) Moral collectivists (“legislate against immorality”) Liberals tend to be economic collectivists (supporting national health care) Moral individualists (“keep your laws off my body”).

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020)

TheSe l fi naSo c i alWo r l d Sel f Es t eem Self-esteem is our overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth. Our self-concept has a direct impact on our self-esteem. Gl obalSe l fEs t e e m How an individual values the self in general. It is commonly viewed as an individual's stable level of self-evaluation. 

People who value themselves in a general way — those with high selfesteem — are more likely to value their looks, abilities, and so forth.

An individual’s self-esteem can also be influenced by external factors. 



Our self-esteem increases when we are made to feel positive about individual domains that are important to us —attractive, good looking, smart, morality, loved and so on. (e.g. when we receive compliments from others) By the same token, our self-esteem decreases when we are made to feel negative about ourselves (e.g. when we are berated by others)

Thedangersofre l yi ngonext ernals our ce st oi ncr e as es e l f wort h Those whose self-worth was contingent on external sources experienced more stress, anger, relationship problems, drug and alcohol use, and eating disorders than did those whose sense of self-worth was rooted more in internal sources (e.g. personal virtues).  

Crocker and Lora Park (2004), those who pursue self-esteem, perhaps by seeking to become beautiful, rich, or popular, may lose sight of what really makes them feel good about themselves When we focus on boosting our self-esteem, we may become less open to criticism, less likely to empathize with others, and more pressured to succeed at activities rather than enjoy them.

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020)

Comparing the Effects of Self-Esteem Hi ghSel f Est eem When people with high self-esteem encounter failures, they manage their sense of self-worth by:  Perceiving others as failing too  Exaggerating their superiority over others  Trying harder the next time  Blaming others High self-esteem has been found in bullies, gang leaders, terrorists, extreme ethnocentrists, genocidal dictators and obnoxious narcissists. More likely to savor and sustain the good feelings High self-esteem fosters initiative, resilience, and pleasant feelings Belief in our superiority can also motivate us to achieve — creating a self-fulfilling prophecy — and can sustain our hope through difficult times

Low Sel f Es t eem When people with low self-esteem encounter failures, they are more likely to:  Give up  Blame themselves Problems associated with low selfesteem include poor health, the increased the risk of depression, drug abuse and some forms of delinquency. People with low self-esteem are more likely to experience clinical problems such as anxiety, loneliness, and eating disorders. Trying to boost low self-esteem through repeating positive phrases often backfires Those low in self-esteem also don’t want to hear positive things about negative experiences. Instead, they prefer understanding responses, even if they are negative.

Whatdo e st hi sme an? Being on the extreme end of the self-esteem spectrum both have their own negative elements. Although having high self-esteem is in general more beneficial than having low self-esteem, it does come with its own set of issues.

How c anweme as ures e l f e s t eem?  

Harrill Self Esteem Inventory Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Sel f Efficacy Self-efficacy is a person’s sense of competency and effectiveness. It is our belief in ourselves and whether we are able to perform a particular task. Individuals with a strong sense of self-efficacy are more persistent, less anxious, less depressed, healthier, and more successful academically than those without a sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is also a good predictor of productivity among workers, and students’ GPA in college. 

Workers with a strong sense of self-efficacy tend to remain calm & seek solutions rather than focus on their own inadequacy.

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020) The causal arrow goes both ways for self-esteem / self-efficacy. Specific selfperceptions have an influence on an individual’s self-esteem. 

An individual who in general, believes he is capable to complete a task (high self-efficacy), is more likely to be able to complete the task. Successful completion of the task would then serve as evidence to the individual that he is capable and motivate him to do even better.

Underst andi ngOurOwnBehavi or Relationships enable survival and thriving, so the self-esteem gauge alerts us to threatened social rejection, motivating us to act with greater sensitivity to others’ expectations.  

Studies confirm that social rejection lowers self-esteem and makes people more eager for approval. Spurned or jilted, we feel unattractive or inadequate. This pain can motivate action such as self-improvement or a search for acceptance and inclusion elsewhere. o E.g. After a breakup, a lady puts in more effort to make herself appear more beautiful and attractive

TheLi mi t at i onsofSel fKnowl edge Knowing what influences our thoughts, behaviors, and actions enables us to better understand ourselves. However, self-knowledge is not always reliable, and people oftentimes misread their own minds. Our perception can be warped due to our surroundings.  

e.g. people may misattribute their rainy-day gloom to life’s emptiness and their excitement while crossing a suspension footbridge to their attraction to a good-looking bystander (i.e. Suspension bridge effect). In experiments, we deny being affected by things that do influence us.

We are unaware of much that goes on in our minds. Perception and memory studies show that we are more aware of the results of our thinking than of its process.

Predi ct i ngOurBehavi or Studies have shown that individuals are oftentimes unable to perceive themselves accurately. Sel f Servi ngBi as People have the to perceive oneself favorably. The phenomenon of self-serving attribution — readily claiming personal credit for success, & attribute failure to

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020) others — is one of the most potent human biases. Making self-serving attributions activates brain areas associated with reward and pleasure.  

When we successfully pull off a project, we tend to attribute the success of the project to our own hard work and talent. On the other hand, if we fail to meet a deadline, we tend to attribute this failure to external circumstances such as other people’s incompetency or other outside of our control

This is evident when we compare ourselves with others. Most of us rate ourselves as better than the average person on subjective, socially desirable traits and abilities. Self-serving attributions contribute to marital discord, worker dissatisfaction, and bargaining impasses Unreal i s t i cOpt i mi s m People tend to take a more positive view on their own fate while viewing the fate of others in a more pessimistic light. Illusory optimism increases our vulnerability. Believing ourselves immune to misfortune, we do not take sensible precautions 

e.g. We are inclined to believe that our relationship with someone who has cheated on his wife will work out. Whereas if we observe someone else in the same situation, we’d think otherwise.

Although aiming high has benefits for success, those who aim too high may struggle with depression as they learn to adjust their goals to more realistic heights.

Pl anni ngFal l acy The tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task. Applicable to things such as planning to save money etc. as well e.g. We estimate that we’ll buy a gift 1 week before our friend’s birthday, when in reality we end up doing so 2 hours before. Useful strategies to combat this   

Microsoft Managers automatically add 30% onto a software developer’s estimate of completion Refer to historical estimates — how long did it take to complete this task / a similar task in the past? Estimate how long each step in the project will take

Fal s eCons ens us& Uni queness We may see our failings as relatively normal and our virtues as relatively exceptional.

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020)

Fal seConsensusEffect The tendency to overestimate the commonality of our opinions and our undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors to find support for our positions. “ Wedon’ ts e et hi ngsast he yar e ,wes e e t hi ngsaswear e . ” We generalize from a limited sample which prominently includes ourselves, impute our own knowledge to others, and use our responses as a clue to their likely responses. We’re also more likely to spend time with people who share our attitudes and behaviors and, consequently, to judge the world from the people we know.

Fal seUni quenessEffect The tendency to underestimate the commonality of our abilities, virtues and successes. We serve our self-image by seeing our talents and moral behaviors as relatively unusual. E.g. Dutch college students preferred being part of a larger group in matters of opinion such as politics (false consensus) but wanted to be part of a smaller group in matters of taste such as musical preferences (false uniqueness; Spears et al., 2009)

Why do we perceive ourselves in the self-serving ways? Due errors in how we process and remember information about ourselves. Comparing ourselves with others requires us to notice, assess, and recall their behavior and ours. This creates multiple opportunities for flaws in our information processing (Chambers & Windschitl, 2004). 

E.g. Married people gave themselves credit for doing more housework than their spouses did. That might occur because we remember what we’ve done but not what our partner did (Ross & Sicoly, 1979). One could easily picture themself picking up the laundry off the bedroom floor but would be less aware of the times where they absentmindedly overlooked it.

Self-serving motives We are also motivated to maintain and enhance our self-image, to protect us from depression, and to buffer stress, even though this might contribute to misjudgment and group conflict.   

Questing for self-knowledge, we’re motivated to assess our competence Questing for self-confirmation, we’re motivated to verify our selfconceptions Questing for self-affirmation, we’re especially motivated to enhance our self-image

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020)

Pros Serves as an adaptive function that allows us to enjoy the good things that happen in our lives

Cons Can also have the maladaptive function of making us blame others or feel cheated of things we believe we deserved.

Benefits of Optimism Optimism beats pessimism in promoting self-efficacy, health, and well-being. 

As natural optimists, most people believe they will be happier with their lives in the future—a belief that surely helps create happiness in the present

Def ensi vePess i mi sm Realism or defensive pessimism anticipates problems and motivates effective coping. It refers to the adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing one’s anxiety to motivate effective action. Viewing things in a more immediate, realistic way often helps.

TerrorManagementTheory Humans must find ways to manage their overwhelming fear of death. The reality of our own death, he argues, motivates us to gain recognition from our work and values. The theory suggests that we continually pursue self-esteem by meeting the standards of our societies, in order to feel our lives are not in vain.

Predi ct i ngOurFeel i ngs Oftentimes we are able to accurately predict how a certain scenario will make us feel. However, there are times where we may mis-predict our responses. 

E.g. When asked how they would feel if asked sexually harassing questions on a job interview, most women studied by Julie Woodzicka and Marianne LaFrance (2001) said they would feel angry. When in reality, in the face of such a scenario, women more often experienced fear.



Hungry shoppers are more likely to impulse buy (“Those doughnuts would be delicious!”) than shoppers who have just enjoyed a quarter-pound blueberry muffin (Gilbert & Wilson, 2000). When you are hungry, you mispredict how gross those deep-fried doughnuts will seem when you are sated. When stuffed, you may underestimate how yummy a doughnut might be with a late-night glass of milk—a purchase whose appeal quickly fades when you’ve eaten one or two.

Social Psychology Study Notes (2020)

I mpactBi as Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events. In summary, emotional traces of good / bad tidings evaporate faster than we expect. We’re especially prone to impact bias after a negative event (e.g. a breakup or a loss). In focusing on the negative event, we discount the importance of everything else that contributes to happiness and thus overpredict our enduring misery. 

Interestingly, major negative events (which activate our psychological defenses) can be less enduringly distressing than minor irritations (which don’t activate our psychological defenses). We are, under most circumstances, amazingly resilient.

DualAt t i t udeSys t em Differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may ...