Psych 100 Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

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Psych 100

Unit Exam #2

Prof LeBreton

Study Guide Unit Exam #2 *Your exam will have 70 MC questions and covers chapters 8, 9, 14, 12, 15, 16, and 17* *The exam is in class at your regular time and room (April 20)* CHAPTER 8 ➢ Understand Classical Conditioning and be able to apply the terms to examples The story of Pavlov and his dogs lead to a breakthrough in learning theory that is now called Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): stimulus that can elicit an unlearned response (an instinctual stimulus) FOOD Unconditioned Response (UCR): an unlearned reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (an instinctual or inborn reaction) SALIVATE Conditioned Stimulus (CS): BELL+FOOD stimulus that elicits a response as a result of being paired with an UCS (a learned stimulus) Conditioned Response (CR): SALIVATE response that is similar or identical to the UCR that is elicited by a CS (a learned response) Definition: a form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) that is identical to or very similar to the unconditioned response (UCR) “Little Albert” experiment (John Watson): paired a white rat with a frightening noise until the baby was conditioned to be afraid of the white rat on site (after 7 pairings) • • • •

What’s the Unconditioned Stimulus? Loud Noise What’s the Unconditioned Response? Fear What’s the Conditioned Stimulus? White rat What’s the Conditioned Response? Fear

Counterconditioning: the process of reversing classical conditioning by pairing the conditioned stimulus (CS) with a new unconditioned stimulus (USC) for a response that is stronger than the conditioned response (CR) For little “Albert” we might pair the rat with cookies until he is no longer afraid of the rat In Class Examples… Fear response: don’t go into the water! : UCS= image of shark UCR = fear CS= bathtub water

Psych 100

Unit Exam #2

Prof LeBreton

CR= fear Sentimental feelings: That’s our song! : UCS=falling in love UCR=feel good CS=song CR=feel good Bodily responses: Thorazine Kid: UCS=thorazine UCR=calm CS=brown m&m CR=calm Mr. MaCarroll: UCS=running UCR=increases heart rate CS= banging stick CR=increased heart rate ➢ Understand Operant Conditioning and be able to apply the terms to examples Operant Conditioning • Definition: Learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence • There are four ways in which the consequences of our behavior can be influenced: 1. Positive Reinforcement - good grades, CAR 2. Negative Reinforcement - good grades, TAKE AWAY chores 3. Positive Punishment - bad grades, CHORES 4. Negative Punishment - no car, bad grades - Positive Reinforcement: when the consequence of a behavior leads to an increase in the probability that the behavior will occur again - Positive Reinforcer: the positive consequence that is presented (not the person presenting it) example: chocolate for the reward • Three things have to be adhered to in order for Positive Reinforcement learning to occur: – Timing: must be presented within a short time of the desired behavior – Consistency: must be presented nearly every time the desired behavior occurs – A True Positive Reinforcer: must be something that is actually reinforcing Primary and Secondary Reinforcers • Primary Reinforcers: things that are innately reinforcing (example: food, warmth, sexual gratification) born liking this • Secondary Reinforcers: reinforces that are learned (example: money, prizes, grades, applause) not born naturally liking this - Secondary reinforcers are learned through classical conditioning ➢ Understand how extinction occurs in both CC and OC Extinction MAKING FEAR EXTINCT

Psych 100

Unit Exam #2

Prof LeBreton

• Extinction: the process of unlearning a learned response because original source of learning has been removed fro the environment • Classical Conditioning: extinction occurs when a CS is no longer paired with a UCS (CC fear responses are difficult to extinguish) NO LONGER PAIR RAT WITH LOUD NOISE • Operant Conditioning: extinction occurs when the consequence of a behavior changes (or is no longer reinforced) WHEN YOU GET BETTER GRADES YOU DONT GET MORE CHORES ➢ Be familiar with schedules of reinforcement Schedules of Positive Reinforcement • Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: the reinforcer is given every time BEST FOR INITIAL LEARNING • Fixed Ratio Schedule: the reinforcer is given only after a specified number of responses (Example: a seamstress gets a paycheck each time she makes 6 dresses) NUMBER OF TIMES • Variable Ratio: the reinforcer is given after a varying number of responses (Example: on the average of every 6th time, slot machines) FLUCTUATING OR VARRYING • Fixed Interval Schedule: the reinforcer is given after a fixed amount of time (Example:every 5 minutes, a piece of food is given to a dog doing tricks) CLOCK TIME • Variable Interval Schedule: the reinforcer is given after a variable amount of time (Example: the dog is given food on the average of every 5 minutes) Which Schedule Works Best? • Continuous reinforcement is great for initial learning, but is not practical to do all the time • Fixed Ratio produces a high rate of desired behavior, but there is usually a pause after the reinforcer is given • Variable Ratio reinforcer given after a varying number of responses, is the best reinforcement schedule because it produces a very high rate of responses and the learning is permanent • Fixed Interval - the reinforcer is given after a fixed amount of time (every 5 minutes) responses increase only as the fixed time approaches • Variable Interval given after variable amount of time produces high rates of steady responses and the learning is permanent (on average every 5 minutes) • Fixed Interval – responses increase only as the fixed time approaches • Variable Interval produces high rates of steady responses ➢ Be familiar with the “Bobo” doll experiment • Bobo doll experiment: • Children watched 1. An adult beating up the doll 2. An adult being nice to the doll (pro-social behavior) 3. Nothing • Children modeled what they saw (beat up the doll, were nice to the doll or were neutral to the doll) • What you DO is far more powerful than what you SAY! “NO YELLING”!!!! stimulus discrimination - noticing between high pitch and nice and mean and scary stimulus generalization - one mean dog = all bad dogs

Psych 100

Unit Exam #2

Prof LeBreton

CHAPTER 9 ➢ Understand the 3 Box Stage Model of Memory (the features of STM, LTM and sensory memory) The Three Stage Model of Memory Atkinson-Shriffin proposed this model in 1968 The processing of memories goes through three areas: 1. Sensory memory 2. Short term memory (STM) 3. Long term memory (LTM) Level 1 of the Three Stage Model Sensory Memory - Contains raw sensations prior to perception - Very large capacity - Material here only briefly - Iconic Memory: a brief visual photo of what you are seeing (lasts only a fraction of a second) - Echoic Memory: brief auditory memory of what you are hearing (lasts 3-4 seconds) Level 2 of the Three Stage Model Short Term Memory (STM) - Very limited capacity (7 +/- 2 chunks of information) - Very limited time (approx. 30 sec) - Can keep info here longer with rehearsal -Can store more info here with chunking STM Test: Examples of 7 +/- 2 items and chunking Level 3 of the Three Stage Model Long Term Memory (LTM) - Theoretically unlimited storage - Detail level caries - Info may be permanent but can be distorted - Can feed back into STM Retro active interference - FORGET OLD learn new french cant learn psnaihs from high school RETRO IS OLD proactive inference - FORGET NEW already know spanish and hard to learn french now bc interferes ➢ Distinguish between procedural, semantic, and episodic memory (long-term) 1. Procedural – memories of common physical procedures/muscle memory, mostly accessed implicitly 9without thinking), highly robust to amnesia (unforgettable, permanent) 2. Episodic memory – memory of things that we have personally experienced (personal episodes) EPISODE = SHORT CLIP OF EVENT IN YOUR HEAD 3. Semantic memory – memory of general knowledge, facts, and word meanings

Psych 100

Unit Exam #2

Prof LeBreton

Examples: I know how to play a guitar = procedural I remember my first guitar lesson = episodic I know what a guitar is = semantic ➢ Be familiar with the memory experiments that were discussed in class Flashbulb Memory: Ulric Neisser’s Challenger study: 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger exploded killing all astronauts on board - The day following the Challenger explosion, asked college students to describe in detail when/how they heard, how they felt etc. - Asked them again 2 ½ years later - Scored on similarity from 1-7 points - Of 44 participants, only 3 scored perfect 7 - Mean score was 2.95 - Over half scored less than 2 - Yet all recalled vivid, certain memories ➢ What areas of the brain are crucial to memory? Storing Memories in the Brain - Hippocampus: the “gateway” to memory, the “save” button, processes memories from STM into LTM - Used for explicit memory (recalling events, words, smells or sights) - Transferred while we sleep The Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia: stores implicit memories (automatic), such as classically conditioned responses and motor movements (procedural memories) Amygdala: connects emotions to memories - Flashbulb memories are highly rich, highly detailed memories of a significant moment in your life - We can easily remember the emotions associated with flashbulb memories, but the actual details of the event are prone to error ➢ Distinguish between Anterograde and Retrograde amnesia Anterograde - inability to LEARN new memories (common) N FOR NEW Retrograde - inability to RECALL old ➢ Understand conceptual networks Memories are stored and retrieved by connecting them to other memories Retrieval example: Is a canary a bird? Your brain instantaneously sifts through memory files called Conceptual Networks Improving Memory based on Conceptual Networks - Retrieval of memories can be enhanced by activating as many connecting nodes as possible

Psych 100

Unit Exam #2

Prof LeBreton

- Elaborative Rehearsal involves connecting the new memory to existing memories ADDING NEW MEMORY TO OLD FILE - Conceptual Networks explain the “tip of the tongue” phenomenon - “Feeling of knowing”, but can’t access the info Effortful Processing Strategies: Improve how you study! Hierarchies: group info into categories using headings pictures etc Distributed Practice: spread your studying out over time (also called the spacing effect) The Testing Effect: memory is enhanced when you practice retrieving info (test yourself) The Self-Reference Effect: Making things personally meaningful to you Retrieving and Reconstructing Memories Memories are generally not encoded and retrieved as whole clusters of details Rather, we store memories within schemas, or scripts – adding details to a larger generic framework Memories are prone to “reconstruction” because of the complex nature of our conceptual networks Reconstructing Memories Elizabeth Loftus showed all participants footage of the same car wreck, then asked “How fast were the cars going when they ______ each other?” Contacted Hit Bumped Collided with Smashed into Loftus study continued… Result – people guessed different speeds depending on the question: Contacted – 31.8 mph Hit – 34 mph Bumped into – 38.1 mph Collided with – 39.3 mph Smashed into – 40.8 mph Reconstructing Memories This is called the , and has been implicated in other areas of memory distortion Flashbulb memory distortion Eyewitness testimony Imagination Effects Eyewitness Testimony So, if flashbulb memories aren’t correct, can we trust eyewitness testimony? Loftus’s car crash study shows how leading questions can distort memory Other studies asked questions about a yield sign or broken headlight, where there was none The more people repeat these memories, the more certain they become, even if more distorted Eyewitness Testimony

Psych 100

Unit Exam #2

Prof LeBreton

Wells presented 253 people with a lineup of suspects related to a video they saw of a terrorist bombing All selected a suspect, although the actual suspect was not listed Certainty was very high for those told they’d picked correctly End Fragment Biased Lineups – A woman took 30 minutes to select a suspect from this lineup, but later reported she was 150% sure of her selection – The witness was told the suspect was a ‘black male’, but the lineup included only one AfricanAmerican and four Hispanic suspects Eyewitness Testimony How to improve eyewitness testimony? – Ask non-leading questions – Interview immediately after crime – Don’t use biased lineups – Use open-ended lineups – Use double-blind procedure for lineups - Neither person nor interviewer know if actual suspect is included, or who s/he is Memory Test: Word List #2 Write down all the words you can remember from the second list of words: What happened?? Is the Misinformation effect present? Forgetting – Storage Decay: information decays overtime lose information rapidly first, then levels off – Retrieval Failure: memories still exist but you lack the cues to activate them the conceptual network – Tip of the Tongue Effect: applies to LTM – Interference: 1. Similar items interfere with one another - retroactive interference - recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember sillier older material - currently learning french now cant recall spanish – Retroactive Interference 1. older material interferes with ability to remember similar more recently learned material 2. already know spanish and finding it hard to remember the french i am currently learn because recalling spanish instead – Proactive Interference Repression – Freud argued that the ego protects itself by keeping traumatic memories out of consciousness – Can someone repress a traumatic event (childhood abuse) and remember it later? – “Memory War”: can recovered memories ever be reliable? Amnesia - Two kinds of amnesia

Psych 100

Unit Exam #2

Prof LeBreton

- Anterograde - Retrograde Less common form – These types of amnesia are due to biological brain damage (usually damage to the hippocampus) ➢ Be familiar with some of the body systems that control body fat and weight gain Set Point: genetically influenced weight range that you will stay at when not trying to gain or lose weight - varies about 10% in either direction (set point of 150lbs. could weigh 135-165lbs.) › Basal Metabolism: rate at which the body burns calories, fixed number of fat cells › Hormones also influence the set point › Heritability of set point is .4 to .7 in twin studies - Debate: psychological factors contribute to hunger and physical changes can alter our set point Controlling our eating Brain is #1 organ in determining hunger › Leptin: a hormone that decreases appetite › Insulin: hormone that lowers glucose and stores energy as fat › Glucose: sugar that cells require for energy › Gherlin: hunger- arousing hormone emitted by an empty stomach Obesity Epidemic: BMI (Body Mass Index): measure of weight relative to height (strictly that) More than 50% of American adults and 25% of children are overweight or obese according to the BMI chart › BMI not always a good measure of “healthy” › Not suitable for body builders or certain athletes › Other measures such as hip to waist ratio may be better indicator of health (normal for women) ➢ Distinguish between Anorexia and Bulimia - Anorexia Nervosa - underweight by 10-15% (of lowest BMI) - usually achieved by a severe severe restriction in diet and excessive exercise - distorted body perception - usually begins in adolescence - almost always female (1-4% of females ages 12-40 will have anorexia) - the deadliest mental illness on the planet - Bulimia Nervosa - maintain a normal body weight - binging (thousands of calories in one sitting) and purging of food - purging consists of self-induced vomiting, laxatives and/or excessive exercise - history of weight problems/issues in the past - feeling out of control when binging - extreme guilt and self-shaming ➢ Distinguish between passionate and companionate love

Psych 100

Unit Exam #2

Prof LeBreton

Motives to Love: Passionate Love vs. Companionate Love Biological similarities between romantic love and mother-infant bond › Same neurotransmitters and hormones are activated in the mom- baby bond and in the adult love bond › Same areas of the brain are activated when mom looks at pictures of baby and when adult lovers look at pictures of each other Same areas of the brain are activated when mom looks at pictures of baby and when adult lovers look at pictures of each other ➢ Understand Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. ****PICTURE IN CHAPTER 12 NOTES**** ➢ Understand the attachment styles discussed in class Attachment Theory › Secure: really jealous, don't fear abandonment › Anxious-Ambivalent: agitated, worried about abandonment › Avoidant: distrusting, avoid closeness Your attachment to your primary caregivers will govern your attachment in adult love relationships Harville Hendricks: “Getting the Love You Want” ➢ Be familiar with different methods of research in human sexuality and the findings of these studies Motives for Sex Alfred Kinsey: (1950s) pioneering work on human sexuality (survey research) - people were engaging in behaviors that most thought were “taboo” - women are sexual too - helped men and women to better understand each other Masters and Johnson: (1960s)sexual laboratories › Mapped out the physiology of sex and orgasm › Asserted that female and male sexuality is equal › May have a problem with their sample of research subjects Sexual Response Cycle 1. Excitement 2. Plateau 3. Orgasm 4. Resolution - refractory period for males only Gender Diferences in Sexuality › Women are capable of multiple orgasms › Men engage in more fantasy and masturbation than women (even when such behavior is prohibited) › Men’s sexual desire is more often linked to aggressive/dominant behavior in the brain › Women’s sexual desire is more often linked to nurturing behavior in the brain

Psych 100

Unit Exam #2

Prof LeBreton

Culture and Sex Sexual Scripts: sets of rules that say when and what is proper in terms of sexual relations for men and women › What are some sexual scripts for young men and women today? Sexual Orientation Biological links are inconclusive: What about the range of sexual orientation? Hetero – bi – homo What about experimenting in homosexual behavior, but not identifying as gay? Homosexuality is NOT caused by… - a smothering mother or absent father - same-sex child play (common) - lack of proper role models/learning Homosexuality documented in more than 450 other species besides humans (Examples: dolphins, penguins, many primates) Gender Identity Gender Identity is separate from sexual orientation › It is your experience or feeling of being either male or female or somewhere in between › Intersex Conditions can cause gender identity confusion Transgender: if you come a man you are a TANSGENDER MAN, gender dysphoria, intensely uncomfortable with biological gender and strongly identifies with and wants to be opposite gender (independent of sexual orientation) Transvestite: Drag Queen: Bruce/Brenda/David Reimer Story: ➢ Understand the implications of the famous studies discussed in this unit on conformity, obedience, and social roles Conformity = changing a behavior or attitude to fit into “the norm” Asch’s line experiment – what would you do?? 12 wrong answers: 5% always conformed, 70% conformed see of the time, 25% remained completely indifferent Obedience Milgram’s Study: 1963 Between 60-70% gave the “max” voltage in the original experiment Would NOT obey when: - experimenter left the room - victim was in the room with them - 2 experimenters gave conflicting orders - person giving order was...