Psych Exam 3 Study Guide PDF

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Notes and Study material for Professor Coleman's 3rd exam...

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Chapter 9: Lifespan Development

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Normative approach: normal development along with developmental milestones and maturation through life’s stages Continuous development: gradual change and improvement on existing skills (ex: height growth) Discontinuous development: occurs at certain times or ages; sudden change

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Psychosocial Development (Erikson…”neofreudian”) ○ Personality is continually developed through our social interactions ○ Form our identities by developing intimate relationships

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Cognitive Development (Piaget) ○ Abilities progress through certain stages=discontinuous development ○ Children assimilate or accommodate new info with schemata ○ Stage 1 (Sensorimotor):  experience the world through senses + actions; object permanence/stranger anxiety ○ Stage 2 (Preoperational): symbols used to represent words, images, and ideas; play pretend, understand the concept of conservation & egocentrism ○ Stage 3 (concrete operational): understand events/analogies, perform arithmetic operations; reversibility ○ Stage 4 (formal operational): utilize abstract reasoning; ages 12+

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Moral Development ( kohlberg) ○ Posed moral dilemmas (Heinz dilemma) to people: stealing drug to help ill wife ○ 3 Stages of moral reasoning that lead up to gaining moral principles and individual rights to live a balanced life

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Attachment: connection with others (mother/caregiver) ○ Secure base: parental presence that provides safety for a child to explore and grow by participating in mutually enjoyable interactions

★ Infancy through childhood ○ Newborn reflexes: inborn automatic responses to certain stimuli; help newborn survive and interact with the environment; present in healthy babies ■ Ex: grasping/sucking reflexes

Chapter 11: Personality

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Freud: Psychodynamic Perspective & talk therapy ○ 3 levels of consciousness: preconscious, conscious, unconscious ○ Form personality by balancing the two forces: biological (id) & internal control (superego) ○ Defense mechanism: unconscious protective behaviors that try to reduce anxiety; can distort reality ■ Types of mechanisms: Denial, displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, repression, sublimation

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Carl Jung (Neo-Freudian) ○ Founded school of analytical psychology to balance conscious & unconscious thoughts to experience personality ○ Collective unconscious: universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental traces which are all universally common ○ Archetypes: universally common memories (ex: hero, father figure) ○ Theory about personality types of introverts/extroverts

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Social-cognitive perspective (Bandura) ○ Learning and thinking also play a role in forming different personalities ○ 3 concepts in theory ■ Reciprocal determinism: interaction of cognitive processes, behavior, and situational context ■ Observational learning of others ■ Self-efficacy: confidence in our abilities to tackle challenges

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Locus of control (Julian Rotter) ○ Feeling that we have control of our lives or if the environment does instead ○ Internal LOC: perception that one controls one’s fate; has self-efficacy ○ External LOC: perception that outside forces/environment controls one’s fate; passive and can lead to learned helplessness Person-situation debate (Mischel-student of rotter) ○ Behavior is conditional; internal beliefs can be activated by situational conditions ○ Self-regulation (will power): ability to control our behavior by delaying external gratification; identify goal and pursue goal through internal & external feedback

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Humanistic psychology approach ○ Optimism & power of personal choice ○ Maslow’s “Hierarchy of Needs” ○ Roger’s client-centered therapy

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Experience “congruence” of an accurate self-concept when our ideal and real selves are similar; experience “incongruence” ideal and real selves don’t match Good sense of positivity can lead to good quality of life

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Gordon alpert ○ Personality is a dynamic organization that adjusts to different situations ○ Traits are characteristics that are manifested through various situations; people will perceive and respond to stimuli in certain ways ○ Cardinal traits: dominate entire personality; not common because most people have many traits within personality ○ Central traits: make up our personality; obvious and consistent ○ Secondary traits: shown when experiencing certain situations; not obvious

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Eysenck’s theory ○ Personality traits are influenced by genetics; focused on temperament personality differences ○ Extrovers v introverts ○ Neuroticism (anxious/stressed) v emotional stability ○ Psychoticism (independent, impulsive, antisocial) v superego control (empathetic/cooperative)

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Five factor model (big 5 personality trait concept) ○ Openness ○ Conscientiousness ○ Extraversion ○ Agreeableness ○ Neuroticism

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Barnum/Forer Effect ○ People will give high accuracy ratings to personality descriptions for them, but are vague enough to apply descriptions to others and are easily convinced; explains why people believe horoscopes

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Individualism: defining one’s own identity by personal traits; priority to individual goals Collectivism: defining a group’s identity and giving priority to the group’s goals; duty-based; behavior reflects social norms/roles; value harmony

Chapter 12: Social Psychology

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Situationism: our behavior/actions are influenced by our environment Dispositionism: our behavior is influenced by internal factors (personality/temperament) ○ Actor-observer bias: viewing the behavior of others as dispositional, committing the FAE, but viewing oneself’s behavior as situational and being hypocritical ○ Self-serving bias: making dispositional explanations for positive outcomes, but situational explanations for negative outcomes in order to protect one’s self-esteem ○ Just-World Hypothesis: view the world as predictable so we think we have control in our lives; common American belief that “people get what they deserve” ■ Example: blaming the poor for their own poverty while ignoring situational/cultural causes

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Fundamental attribution error: assumption that an individual’s behavior is due to their personality instead of situational influences that affect one’s mental state/mood due to lack of info ○ Individualistic culture: focuses on individual achievement and autonomy, such as western cultures, sway towards the dispositionism belief and often commit the FAE ○ Collectivistic culture: focuses on communal relationships; less likely to commit the FAE because they have broader perspectives and they consider situational/cultural influences on behavior; cultures in East Asian countries, Latin America, African countries

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Social roles: expected pattern of behavior in a certain group setting; social settings influence our behavior Social norm: expectation of acceptable behavior ○ Script: a person's knowledge about sequence of events expected in certain setting; event schema

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Cognitive dissonance (Festinger) ○ Psychological discomfort is experienced when there is a conflict in our behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that go against our positive self-perceptions ○ Example: believing that smoking is bad for your health, but continues to smoke ○ Example: against all sorts of cheating, but helps boyfriend

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The effect of initiation ○ Justification of effort: difficult initiation into a group causes one to like the group more

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Example: students value courses that require more effort

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Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion ○ Persuasive message----central(logic)/peripheral(positive emotions/endorsement) route----audience (motivated/not motivated)----processing (evaluative or little effort)---persuasion (lasting change in attitude or temporary change)

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Foot-in-the-door technique ○ Small request can become a large request ○ Past behavior directs future behavior/maintain consistency ○ Example: asking for a ride from parent, then asking for $ too

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Door-in-the-face technique ○ Following up a large request with a reasonable one that the “guilty” subject complies to ○ Example: asking for $100, then just $10

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Conformity: change in a person’s behavior to go along with the group, despite personal beliefs ○ Asch effect: more likely to conform when there are less dissenters, public responses, and a larger majority size in a group (line segment study) ○ Compliance: when someone’s vote changes if public v private; going along with it even if you don’t agree ○ Influence the prevalence of prejudices and acts of discrimination

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Normative social influence: conform to group to fit in and avoid rejection Informational social influence: conform b/c they believe group is knowledgeable, especially when the situation is unclear

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Stanley milgram’s experiment: proved that people obey or conform to authority figures in fear of consequence

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Groupthink: changing opinions to match group consensus; not beneficial, better to have diverse opinions

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Group polarization: strengthening of an initial group attitude after the discussion of views within a group ○ Example: thinking someone is attractive, support and hype from friend, feeling more strongly about it Social facilitation: performing easy tasks better with an audience Social loafing: less effort from individual when working in a group b/c they are less motivated and not evaluated individually

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Self-fulfilling prophecy: expectations altering one’s behavior to make them true; treating others based on stereotypes leads to prejudice/discrimination ○ Confirmation bias: seek out info that supports stereotypes while ignoring info that goes against our initial expectations

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Out-group: group we don’t identify with because they are different In-group: group we identify with ○ In-group bias: preference for our own group over other groups; lead to conflict as well prejudice/discrimination ■ Scapegoating: act of blaming an out-group when the in-group is struggling ■ “Othering”: creating negative stereotypes of out-group members (others) in order to devalue them as “those people”

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Matching hypothesis: tendency to pick someone they view as their equal in physical attractiveness and social desirability

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Social exchange theory: weighing the costs & benefits of forming and keeping a relationship, hoping to maximize benefits & minimize costs

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Prosocial behavior: voluntary behavior with the intent to assist others ○ Altruism: people’s desire to assist others despite the outweighing costs; having empathy ○ Homophily: tendency to form relationships with others who are similar; reduces diversity ■ Reciprocity: mutual give & take in relationships ■ Self-disclosure: sharing of personal info to form intimate relationships

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Sternberg’s triangular theory of love ○ Consummate love (intimacy + passion + commitment) ■ Liking (intimacy) ■ Companionate love (intimacy + commitment) ■ Empty love (commitment) ■ Fatuous love (passion + commitment) ■ Infatuation (passion) ■ Romantic love (passion + intimacy)

Chapter 15: Psychological Disorder ●

Psychological disorders must be atypical, distressful, dysfunctional, and dangerous

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Harmful dysfunction model (Wakefield)

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Can characterize a psychological disorder in which internal mechanisms (cognition, perception, learning) are no longer working correctly, followed by negative consequences

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DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) ○ Used by mental health professionals in the U.S. ○ Disorder categories (anxiety, depressive, dissociative) are each described by symptoms, prevalence, and risk factors ○ Shows comorbidity of co-occurrence of two disorders in an individual ○ Criticized for over-diagnosing with “loose” criteria ○ In comparison, the ICD (International Classification of Diseases) is used for clinical purposes, as well as observing a population’s health and prevalence of diseases

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Medical model (biopsychological approach) ○ Mental illnesses are diagnosed by symptoms and treated through therapy/in psychiatric hospitals ○ Doesn’t believe mental illness is entirely due to biology (sickness approach) ○ Epigenetics: how environment influences gene expression

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Supernatural perspective (outside force attributes to one’s atypical behavior) Biological perspective (genes are inherited and disorders are passed down)

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Diathesis-stress model ○ Having a predisposition for a disorder (diathesis) makes one more likely to develop one from experiencing adverse environmental/psychological events that cause stress ○ Combines biology and psychosocial factors ○ Inversely proportional relationship between the two factors of stress and diathesis Anxiety Disorders ➢ Excessie & persistent fear and anxiety, by related behavioral disturbances

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Specific Phobias ○ Anxiety about a specific object or situation than can be disruptive ○ Result of learning responses either socially or classically conditioned ○ Agoraphobia: anxiety disorder in DSM-5; “fear of the marketplace” in which it becomes hard to escape

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Panic disorder

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Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks (period of extreme fear/discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes) Less than or equal to one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks

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Social anxiety disorder

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Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable, unjustified worry and apprehension Obessive-Compulsive Disorders ➢ Intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors that become disruptive to daily life; involves orbitofrontal cortex in brain ➢ Obsessions about something ➢ Compulsions: behaviors/mental actions

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Body Dysmorphic Disorder ○ Preoccupied with a perceived flaw in one’s physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to others; involves prefrontal ortex in brain

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Hoarding: involves anterior cingulate cortex in brain

PTSD ➢ Diagnosed when a person has been exposed to, witnessed, or experienced a traumatic event in which one’s life is at risk ➢ Result of classical conditioning to certain stimuli/thoughts ➢ Has flashbacks along with extreme, intrusive, distressing memories of event Mood Disorders ● ●

Depressive disorders: symptoms must cause distress and impair normal functioning; depression influenced by norepinephrine & serotonin Bipolar disorders: mania & extreme mood swings Schizophrenia ➢ Consists of delusions and hallucinations ➢ Psychological disorder with major disturbances in cognition & emotion Dissociative disorders

➢ Disruptions in consciousness, memory, sense of identity, or perception ➢ Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personalities) Personality disorders ➢ Differs from cultural expectations and causes distress/impairment along with difficulties to establish and maintain relationships ●

Narcissistic personality disorder ○ unjustified & extreme sense of self-importance, feels entitled, arrogant, lacks empathy

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Borderline personality disorder ○ unstable self-image, mood, and behavior; impulsive & unpredictable

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Antisocial personality disorder ○ Violates the rights of others, often lies and gets in trouble ○ Lacks empathy ○ Influenced by adverse family environments ○ Overactive levels of dopamine

❖ Disorders in Childhood ●

ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) ○ Pattern of inattention/hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal functioning ○ Smaller frontal lobe volume; dysregulation of dopamine

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ASD (autism spectrum disorder) ○ Deficits in social interaction & communication ○ Repetitive behavior patterns...