Psych 100 Final Exam Study Guide PDF

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CUMMULATIVE FINAL EXAM: PSYC 100 Spring 2017 Study Guide Dr. LeBreton NEW Material: Chapter 13 Understand the “primary” emotions • Emotion: complex psychological event that involves… 1. Physiological changes (usually arousal) 2. Expressive reaction (distinctive facial expression, body posture or voice tone) 3. Subjective Experience (internal thoughts and feelings) • Hard Wired Emotions • Primary Emotions: facial expressions are universal for these: 1. happiness 2. surprise 3. anger 4. fear 5. disgust/contempt 6. sadness • Primary Emotions Continued: Babies’ Facial Expressions • Facial Feedback: facial muscles actually send messages to the brain that result in us feeling an emotion ◦

Smiling increases positive feelings

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Frowning increases negative feelings

Understand the facial feedback hypothesis • Theories of Emotion

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• Common Sense: 1.) Fear (emotion) – 2.) body arousal • James-Lange: 1.) Body arousal – 2.) Fear • Cannon-Bard: Fear and body arousal happen at the same time • Two Factor Theory (Schachter): bodily reaction and cognitive interpretation of the event determine emotional experience

• Culture of Emotion • Display Rules: culture can dictate when and how to express certain emotions • Emotion Work: displaying and emotion the is socially

• Emotion and Gender • Emotional Reactivity: men have greater autonomic NS responses when angry and are more prone to angry thoughts • Cognitions: men and women often perceive the same event differently (resulting in different emotions) • Expressiveness: more acceptable for women to express emotions in general 2

• Women tend to: ◦ smile more than men ◦ look at talker more ◦ use more body language and touch ◦ talk more about emotions • Men are more likely to show anger than women • Men are supposed to mask most other negative emotions (sadness, anxiety, etc.) Be familiar with the facts about happiness that were discussed in class (and in the book) Happiness is: 1. a mood 2. an attitude 3. a social phenomenon 4. a cognitive filter The feel-good, do-good phenomenon: when in a good mood, we do more for others. The reverse is also true: doing good feels good. • Can Money Buy Happiness? Money seems to buy happiness when it lifts people out of extreme poverty. Otherwise, money doesn’t seem to help our mood much. 1. The average level of income (adjusted for inflation) and purchasing power has increased in the United States. 2. The percentage of people feeling very happy, though, has not changed in response to increase in wealth • Adaptation-Level Phenomenon ▪ The adaptation-level phenomenon: when our wealth or other life conditions improve, we are happier compared to our past condition ▪ However, then we adapt, form a “new normal” level, and most people must get another boost to feel the same satisfaction. 3

▪ As our life conditions improve (gain wealth/success/love), we keep adjusting our expectations upward ▪ It is also true that misfortune, disability, and loss do not result in a permanent decrease in happiness. ▪ In both cases, humans tend to adapt. ▪ Losses and gains in life do not necessarily affect our overall happiness in the long term • Correlates of Happiness WHAT HAPPINESS IS RELATED TO: 1.

having high self-esteem

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being optimistic

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have close friendships or a satisfying marriage

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having work and leisure that engage their skills

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having an active religious faith

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sleeping well and exercising

WHAT HAPPINESS IS NOT RELATED TO: 1. age 7.

gender (women are more often depressed, but also more joyful)

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parenthood (having children or not)

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physical attractiveness Possible Ways to Increase Your Chances at Happiness • • • • • • • • • •

Look beyond wealth for satisfaction. Bring your habits in line with your goals; take control of your time. Smile and act happy. Find work and leisure that engages your skills. Exercise, or just move! Focus on the needs and wishes of others. Work, rest, …and SLEEP. Notice what goes well, and express gratitude. Nurture spirituality, meaning, and community. Make your close relationships a priority.

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UNIT 1 (Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7): Distinguish between structuralism and functionalism - Structuralism (Wundt and Titchener) analyzed sensations, image and feelings into basic elements, introspection: looking inward to describe experiences - Functionalists (James and Calkins) analyzed the function or purpose of behavior, Darwin influenced Understand the various schools of thought in psychology (biological, learning, cognitive, sociocultural, psychodynamic, humanism) 1. Biological - how the body influences behavior, thoughts and feelings, nervous system, brain chemicals, hormones, genetics, evolutionary psychology, how our adaptive evolution affects us today 2. Learning/Behaviorism: how environment and experience affect behavior, behaviorism = what we can see, reinforcement and punishment, behavior modification 3. Cognitive: how thoughts affect behavior, feelings, reasoning, memory, intelligence, beliefs, thoughts 4. Sociocultural: how social and cultural influences affect thoughts, feelings, behavior, most underestimate the power of culture and society 5. Psychodynamic: how unconscious conflicts, inner forces affect behavior, though and feelings, Freud, family of origin/childhood issues 6. Humanistic: how to create a fulfilled life, 1960s, free will and choices, be all that you can be, be your best, “positive psychology” - Basic Psychology: research and publish - Applied Psychology: finding practical uses for the research Review the types of psychologists - Clinical psychologist: PhD prepared, 5-7 years beyond Bachelor’s degree, cannot prescribe medication, no medical school - Psychiatrist: attended medical school, completed special rotations in psychiatry, can prescribe medications to treat mental disorders (med #1 treatment) - Experimental Psychologist: focus on laboratory studies of various topics, researchers - Educational Psychologist: research ways to improve educational systems K-12 - Developmental Psychologist: how we grow and change throughout a lifespan, children, aging 5

- Industrial/Organizational Psychologist: heavier in the workplace, effective business practices, highest paid area - Psychometric Psychologist: design and evaluate tests, interest, personality, IQ, work with SAT and ACT test - School Psychologist: works with parents, teachers students to solve issues, with masters degree considered psychologist - Clinical Psychologist: focus on understanding and treating emotional problems, abnormal or dysfunctional heavier, largest area of psychology - Counseling Psychologist: focus on helping people with adjustment problems and helping people make career choices Understand correlational studies. • Correlation Coefficient: a number that describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables – Correlation coefficient can range from -1.0 to +1.0 – A correlation coefficient of zero means there is NO relationship between the variables – Anything more or less than 0 is strong relationship • Positive Correlation: when variables move in the same direction (Ex. When one variable goes up, the other goes up OR when one variable goes down, the other goes down - better relationship child has with parents, better child does in school) • Negative Correlation: when variables move in the opposite direction (Ex. When one goes up, the other goes down - when arguments increase the marital satisfaction decreases) Understand the experimental method and the terms associated with it (IV, DV etc.) •Experiment: the researcher manipulates one variable to study its effect on another variable • Independent Variable (IV): the variable that is controlled or manipulated • Dependent Variable (DV): the variable that is being measured (to see what effect the IV had had) • Experimental Group: the group that receives the independent variable • Control Group (the comparison group): the group that is not exposed to the IV (used to compare to the experimental group) • Random Assignment: putting research participants into control and experimental groups randomly • Placebo: a fake treatment or inactive substance • Placebo effect - taking placebo pill that does nothing but still getting better, Experimenter Effects: when a researcher unintentionally effect the results • Double-blind Study: neither the researcher nor the participants know who is in the experimental 6

group who is in the control group Understand the parts of the neuron and how neurons communicate. Neuron: A specialized cell that conducts impulses through the nervous system and contains three major parts: 1. a cell body 2. dendrites (receive messages) 3. axon (sends messages), terminal button: nub at the end of axon 4. Synapse: space between neurons - Synaptic Vesicles: contain neurotransmitters - Neurotransmitters: chemical that contains the message - Receptor sites: receives neurotransmitters Distinguish between the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. - Central Nervous System (CNS): the brain and spinal cord - Peripheral Nervous System: nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body Two subdivisions of Peripheral NS are… 1. Somatic NS: nerves under conscious control (motor movements, sense receptors) 2. Autonomic NS: controls involuntary actions (hearts, glands, digestion) - happens automatically *breathing falls under both categories* Two subdivisions of the Autonomic NS are… 1. Sympathetic NS: activates internal organs during times of stress and danger/arousal (activates the fight or flight response) fight or flight response 2. Parasympathic NS: reverse the affects of the sympathetic nervous system (returns body back to normal) digests food The Nervous System Picture: eyes dilate to improve vision, heartbeat rises and breathing gets faster to pump energy and strength to the strong muscles, bladder lessens (not on your mind), mouth waters because digestive system slows down, grizzly bear example, simple things trip this system (more than necessary) Distinguish the functions of the different lobes of the cortex (frontal, parietal, etc.). Cerebral Cortex (gray matter) - higher mental processes of language, memory and thinking - four different lobes 1. Frontal Lobes Motor area: control voluntary movements Broca’s area: our ability to speak language Frontal Association areas: thinking, planning, reasoning, impulse control Phineas Gage: (ex) 2. Parietal Lobes Somatosensory area: touch, pressure and pain sensors; awareness of body placements 3. Temperal Lobes Primary auditory cortex: hearing 7

Wernick’s area: ability to understand language 4. Occipital Lobes Primary visual cortex: sight The Divided Brain - Cerebral Hemispheres - Controls movement and feelings on opposite sides of the body - Corpus Callosum - Nerve fibers connecting two hemispheres - Transfers information and synchronizes activity between hemispheres Review the stages of sleep and theories of dream interpretation. Non-REM Sleep Cycles (about 1.5 hours total) • Stage 1: lightest sleep, “hypnogogic” state (myoclonia - startle awake, feeling of falling), theta waves occur, about 20 minutes • Stage 2: somewhat, more deeply asleep (mid-sleep), sleep spindles occur, K Complex occurs, first half of stages is about 30 minutes • Stage 3: deep sleep, delta waves 20% = slow wave/deep sleep begins, heart and breathing slow and regular • Stage 4: deepest sleep, delta waves reach nearly 100%, blood pressure and brain activity at lowest points in 14 hour period REM Sleep (about 1/4 of night, 3 hours is 1 REM cycle, when sleep deprived body catches up on REM sleep) • Rapid Eye Movement sleep - called “active sleep”, “paradoxical sleep”, “dream sleep” - 20-25% of a night’s sleep • Internally: - intense brain activity - brain temperature rises rapidly - epinephrine release leads to increases in blood pressure, heart rate and respiration • Externally: - body appears calm - large muscles become paralyzed - eyes dart around - dreaming occurs in 80% of people During REM sleep, the brain conducts: - consolidation of learning and memory (all night studying doesn't help) - perceptual or motor skills increase after 8-10 hours of sleep - The true function of REM sleep is a mystery. Review the different classes of psychotropic drugs (stimulant, depressant etc.) Psychoactive Drugs: any substance that alters mood, perception or thought 8

People take drugs to: - relieve pain/discomfort - after consciousness - psychological escape - recreation/fun Types of Drugs Stimulants: speed up Central Nervous System - Low-Moderate Levels: excited, confident, euphoric - High Levels: anxious, jittery, hyper - Overdose: convulsions, heart failure, death - Common “uppers”: caffeine, meth, cocaine, nicotine, speed, crack, crank Depressants: slow down the CNS - Low-Moderate Levels: calm, drowsy, reduced anxiety and inhibitions - High Levels: insensitivity to pain and other senses - Overdose: irregular heartbeat, death - Common “downers”: alcohol, valium, xanax Opiate: pain relievers • Derived from the “poppy” plant • Mimics the body’s endorphins • Effects vary: euphoria, reduced anxiety • Common “pain killers”: opium, heroine, methadone Hallucinogens - Reactions vary: sometimes pleasant, sometimes not - Some produce visual hallucinations (LSD, Mushrooms, peyote) Marijuana: does not fit neatly into any of the classes of drugs- Most commonly used illicit drug in North America and Europe - Some stimulating effects (euphoria), also has relaxing effect - Can make sensations more intense (psychedelic effect) - Too Much: can interfere with memory, coordination, concentration and reaction times • Be familiar with hypnosis and meditation Review the stages of physical maturation from pre-natal to adulthood. -

Germinal Stage: (2 weeks) conception, cell division, and uterine implantation, not positive test yet Embryonic Stage: (2-8 weeks post conception) major organs are formed, 5 weeks heart beat, 8 weeks all major organs forms Fetal Stage: (the rest of the pregnancy) continued growth and development of all major organs, fetus

Understand Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

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Jean Piaget: all children go through four cognitive stages at approximately the same age, regardless of the culture in which they live (Huffman, Vernoy, & Vernoy, 2000) “pretty much factual from all the research” – Sensorimotor Stage: (birth-2 years) infants develop a sense of the world through their senses and motor activity 1. Object Permanence: (6-9 months) the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view – Preoperational Stage: (2-7 years) the child cannot perform logical mental functions (or operations), but does think symbolically (using words and sentences) 1. Egocentrism: the preoperational child is complex 2. tely self-centered in his/her thinking - cannot think of things from another person’s perspective 3. Animism: the preoperational child’s belief that inanimate objects are alive (the moon is alive and following them, the stuffed animal is alive) – imagination is very active in this stage – Concrete Operational Stage: (7-11 years) children at this stage can perform concrete logical thinking 1. Reversibility: can reverse operations (Example: 7+2=9 can be reversed to 9-2=7) 4. Conservation: ability to recognize that volume remains unchanged even when put in different sized and shaped containers – Formal Operational Stage: (11 years and beyond) children at this stage become capable of abstract thought and hypothetical thinking (what if?) 1. Adolescent Egocentrism: believing that they are the focus of everyone’s attention (self-consciousness stems from this) 5. Imaginary Audience: belief that everyone is watching everything they do and that others are thinking of them 6. Personal Fable: intense investment in their own thoughts believing that no one else has ever experienced what they are going through Understand Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. 1. Trust Versus Mistrust - infants learn to trust that their needs will be met or they learn to distrust the world round them, 0-1 year old 7. Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt - children learn to exercise their will, to control themselves, to develop a sense of of autonomy or they learn to feel the shame and to doubt themselves, 1-3 years old, potty training 8. Initiative Versus Guilt - children learn to initiate activities and interact with other children or they learn to feel guilty at their attempts at independence or unexpected consequences, 3-6 years, move away from caregivers more 9. Industry Versus Inferiority - children begin to develop competency (industry) and skills in various areas or they learn to feel inferior and insecure about their achievements, 6-12 years 10. Identity Versus Role Confusion - adolescents learn to see themselves as unique with their own sense of ideas and value or they feel confused as to their purpose and role in life, identity crisis, 12-20 year 11. Intimacy Versus Isolation - young adults learn to form close bonds and interpersonal relationships or they learn to feel isolated and alone and avoid close contact with other, 20-30 years old 12. Generativity Versus Stagnation - adults work for the common good, are productive members of society, raise children, etc. or they become self-centered and inactive, 30-65 years 10

13. Ego Integrity Versus Despair - older people reflect on whether their life has been meaningful and worthwhile and feel either satisfaction/integrity or regret/despair Understand the difference between sensation and perception. Sensation: information coming into your brain Perception: organizing and interpreting Example: your ear receives a stimulus in the form of sound waves, you perceive that your favorite song is on the radio Review the parts of the eye • Cornea: protective coating on the surface of the eye • Iris: the colored part of the eye that regulates the amount of light that enters • Pupil: the opening of the iris (the black part) • Lens: the transparent portion of the eye that focuses light into the retina • Retina: image falls here, sensory cells are here • The retina has two types of receptor cells: 1. Rods: receptor cells that code information about light and dark (located outside the center of the retina - 120 million cells in each eye) only code black and white 2. Cones: receptor cells that code information about light, dark and color (located at the center of the retina - 6 million cells in each eye) Fovea: the spot where the scones are concentrated (images focused directly into the fovea are the clearest because of the high concentration of cones) Optic Nerve: the nerve that carries visual neural messages to the brain (the area where the optic nerve attaches contains no rods or cones and therefore is a blind spot) Understand perceptual constancy and color vision • Brightness Constancy: we understand the brightness of an object does not change even when the object is dimly lit • Color Constancy: we understand that colors do not change despite different conditions of light • Size Constancy: size does not change • Shape Constancy: shape does not change 1. Trichromatic Theory: The first level of color processing - 3 different kinds of cones in the eye and each respond to light in either red, blue or green wavelengths therefore all sensations of colors result from stimulating a combination of these 3 cones 2. The Opponent-Process Theory: second level of color processing - In addition to 3 types of cones (one for red, blue and green) there are “opponent-process mechanisms” which respond to either the red-green or the yellowblue wavelengths UNIT 2 (Chapters 8, 9, 14, 12, 15, 16, and 17) Understand classical conditioning (be able to apply the terms to an example). 11

The story of Pavlov and his dogs lead to a breakthrough in learning theory that is now called Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): stimulus that can elicit an unlearned resp...