Psych 101 Final Exam Study Guide PDF

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Filled and highlighted study guide for the final exam in Dr. Sandra Gramling's Psychology 101 class...

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TO KNOW FOR PSYCH FINAL

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PEOPLE Wilhelm Wundt - (1832-1920) *Psychological science is born - Defined psychology as “science of mental life” - Added two key elements to enhance scientific nature of psychology - Elements included carefully measured observations and experiments William James - (1842-1910) - Studied human thoughts, feelings and behaviors asked: - What functions might they serve? - How might they have helped our ancestors survive? - Authored Principles of Psychology - Often referred to as the Father of American Psychology Mary (Whiton) Calkins - (1863-1930) - Became memory researcher and first APA Female President - Studied with James but discriminated against and denied a PhD Sigmund Freud - The First formal Psychotherapy to emerge was psychoanalysis developed by Freud Id, Ego and Superego - Freud’s Personality iceberg model - We can use the metaphor of an iceberg to help us in understanding Freud's topographical theory. Only 10% of an iceberg is visible (conscious) whereas the other 90% is beneath the water (preconscious and unconscious) - Believed our personalities are largely shaped by the enduring conflict between our impulses to do whatever we feel like and our restraint to control these urges Id, Ego and Superego Id - Primitive and instinctual Ego - realistic mediator Superego - Moral conscience Freud’s 5 Psychosexual Stages

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Oral (10-18 months) mouth sucking, biting, chewing Anal (18-36 months) bowel and bladder elimination Phallic (3-6 years) genitals, incestuous sexual feelings (Oedipus Complex) Latency (6 to puberty) dormant sexual feelings Genital (puberty on) Maturation of seuxal interests

Carl Jung - ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY - Proponent of Psychoanalytic perspective - Founder of analytical psychology - Swiss psychiatrist - Friend of freud - Driven by a need for self actualization Abraham Maslow - HIERARCHY OF NEEDS - Humanistic treatment - help client develop a stronger sense of self and become able to help themselves - Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs - Most basic → - Physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem → self-actualization (selftranscendence) - Wrote paper called “A Theory of Human Motivation” in 1943 - Once basic needs are met, we’re able to achieve higher goals - NEEDS PYRAMID MODEL Carl Rogers - HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY - Worked with Abraham Maslow - One of the founding figures of humanistic psychology - Client-centered therapy - Believed we are all good as long as we’re nurtured - Genuineness, acceptance, empathy - nutrients required for a personality to grow Albert Ellis - EVENTS ARE NOT DISTURBING, IT’S HOW YOU INTERPRET THEM - RET Illogical Thinking - Rational Emotive Therapy - “Man is not disturbed by events, by the view he takes of them” - Epictetus, Roman Philosopher - Core Irrational Beliefs (Albert Ellis) - Father of cognitive-behavioral therapy Charles Darwin - Nature vs. Nurture - Some traits, Behaviors and instincts are part of species; natural selection Ivan Pavlov - PAVLOV’S DOGS - Studied the digestive system for two decades

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Won the nobel prize for psychology in 1904 Accidentally discovered classical conditioning through his work on salivation with dogs Investigated this phenomenon further through experimentation Pavlov’s Dogs

John Watson - LITTLE ALBERT CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Little Albert Experiments - Applied principles of classical conditioning to humans - Watson believed that human emotions and behaviors are merely a bundle of conditioned emotional reactions or CERs - Watson and Rayner conditioned a baby to associate white rats with a loud noise and fear them John Garcia - BIOLOGICAL PREDISPOSITION - Biological Predispositions - Challenged the idea that all associations can be learned equally well - Humans and nonhuman animals are biologically predisposed to learn certain associations but not others - Showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours) but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning but other stimuli (sight and sound) did not - Even humans can develop nausea through classical conditioning - Was not respected in the world of psychology B.F. Skinner - OPERANT CONDITIONING - Developed operant conditioning - Dismissed introspection - Considered free will an illusion and human action dependant on consequences of previous actions Albert Bandura - BOBO DOLL OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING - Born 1925 - Observational learning - In his classic Bobo Doll Experiment, Bandura explored observational learning in children - The point that he emphasized was that the children didn’t just imitate the behavior of the adult, they developed novel violent behaviors of their own - Social Cognitive Perspective - the interaction between our traits and their social context Robert Zajonc and Joseph LeDoux - IMMEDIATE EMOTIONS - Current theories of emotion and cognition controversy - They emphasized that some emotions are immediate, without conscious appraisal - Robert Zajonc was a noted social psychologist who came up with a theory known as social facilitation Social Loafing

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Putting in less effort when part of a group because you expect others to pull weight

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer - APPRAISAL DETERMINES EMOTION - Historical Theories of emotion and cognition controversy - Historical theories of emotion - Emphasize that appraisal also determines emotion Paul Ekman - EMOTIONS/FACIAL EXPRESSIONS - Paul Ekman is a contemporary psychologist who studies the relationship between emotions and facial expressions - Well known for his ability to detect lies - He observed that there are six basic emotions that are expressed by certain facial expressions that are shared by people in all cultures. The six basic emotions are anger, happiness, surprise, disgust, sadness and fear Carroll Izard (emotions) - TEN BASIC EMOTIONS - American psychologist Carroll E. Izard"s (1923- ) approach to the study of emotions is influenced strongly by the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin (1809-1882), who argued that certain basic patterns of emotional expression are part of one's biological inheritance. - Identified ten basic emotions: joy, surprise, sadness, anger disgust, contempt, shame, fear, guilt, interest or excitement Hans Selye - GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME - Hans Selye and General Adaptation Syndrome - 1936 - Addressed the physical effects of physical stressors - Physical disease process in humans - Physical stressors in animal experiments - General Adaptation Syndrome - according to Selye, a stress response to any kind of stimulation is similar. The stressed individual goes through three phases Walter Cannon - FIGHT OR FLIGHT - First coined the term “Fight or Flight” - Fight or flight to physical stressor is adaptive - Fight or flight response is symbolic stressors is not adaptive Jay Weiss - STRESSED RATS EXPERIMENT - Jay Weiss and stressed out rats - Addressed the physical effects of psychological stressors - escape/avoidance task: pressing the lever to prevent the shock - The executive rate and the avoidance rat have the same physical stress level - However, the YCR ends up getting the most ulcers - Predictability makes stress easier to handle

Martin Seligman - POSITIVE PSCYHOLOGY - Positive psychology - Explores human flourishing - Uses scientific methods to investigate building of good life that engages skill-building and a meaningful life that extends beyond self Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman - DAILY HASSLE SCALE - Richard Lazarus and his associates designed the “Daily Hassles Scale”. It concentrates on recent stressors, the annoying things that happened to everybody everyday. The hassles are rated as somewhat, moderately or extremely severe. Philip Zimbardo - STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT - Conducted the Stanford Prison Experiments in 1971 Stanley Milgram - SHOCK EXPERIMENT WITH CONFEDERATES - Asked could someone be pressured to commit an immoral act? - Milgram conducted his controversial obedience studies - What might people be capable of under orders - Shock experiment - drawing straws to see who would be the teacher and who would be the learner - Learner asked to memorize word pairs and we fake shocked if they got it wrong - Milgram gave orders always to continue - The experiment must continue; you have no choice to continue - Obedience was highest when the authority figure was nearby and the learner was dehumanized - Social influence and conformity and automatic mimicry Lines and comparison lines Jon Kabat-Zinn - Mindfulness meditation Elizabeth Loftus - Elizabeth Loftus Memory Video - Studies the malleability of the human memory - Groundbreaking work on the misinformation effect Azim Khamisa - His 20 year old son was shot and killed while delivering pizza as part of a gang initiation. - Azim and the grandfather of his son’s killer travel the world together and speak out against violence Everett Worthington - FORGIVENESS - Spent his career studying forgiveness

Kay Jamison - BIPOLAR DISORDER - Clinical psychologist - Work is centered around bipolar disorder - Memoir - Unquiet Mind - She actually struggles with bipolar disorder herself Thomas Szasz - MYTH OF MENTAL ILLNESS - The myth of mental illness His 1961 book, The Myth of Mental Illness, provided the philosophical basis for the antipsychiatry and patient advocate movements that began in the 1960s and have flourished ever since.

CONCEPTS HISTORY AND FOUNDATION Biopsychosocial Model - The biopsychosocial model is a broad view that attributes disease outcome to the intricate, variable interaction of biological factors (genetic, biochemical, etc), psychological factors (mood, personality, behavior, etc.), and social factors (cultural, familial, socioeconomic, medical, etc.). - Everything psychological is ultimately biological Psychology’s Current Perspectives - Neuroscience Evolutionary - Behavior Genetics Psychology’s Subfields - Biological - Developmental - Cognitive - Personality - Social - Clinical - Counseling - Educational - Industrial/Organizational EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Hindsight Bias - After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that outcome

Overconfidence - Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know The Scientific Attitude - Curiosity - Skepticism - Humility The Scientific Method - Theory - Hypothesis - Research Research/Experimental Methods Case Study - use of a descriptive research approach to obtain an in-depth analysis of a person,

group, or phenomenon Survey - a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Naturalistic Observation observing subjects in their natural environment. Random Sampling - a method of selecting a sample (random sample) from a statistical population in

such a way that every possible sample that could be selected has a predetermined probability of being selected. Independent variable Variable chosen by the researcher Dependent variable - The variable being tested by the researcher Correlation and causation - Correlation DOES NOT mean causation - The stronger the correlation between two variables, the better we are able to understand and predict the value of one variable if we know the value of the other variable - The correlation in eye color is a good example of almost perfect positive correlation - If we know one eye color, we can predict with high confidence the eye color of the second eye Positive/Negative Correlation POSITIVE = SAME NEGATIVE = OPPOSITES - Positive Correlation - as one variable increases, so does the other. Both variables behave in the same way - Negative Correlation - as one variable increases, the other decreases, each variable acts separately - ranges from -1 to 1+; they’re a mathematical score used to describe the strength and

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direction of the relationship between two variables The strength of a correlation is determined by its absolute value not by its positive or negative sign WHICHEVER VARIABLE IS CLOSEST TO 1 HAS THE STRONGEST CORRELATION

Double-Blind Study - Neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment - Useful for preventing bias Random Assignment - An experimental technique for assigning human participants or animals to different groups in an experiment - uses chance Confederate - An actor participates in a study pretending to be a regular subject but is actually in cahoots with the experimenter (aka a stooge) Post and Retrospective Studies - A retrospective study looks backwards and examines exposures to suspected risk or protection factors in relation to an outcome that is established at the start of the study BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR The Nervous System - Central Nervous System - brain, spinal cord - Peripheral Nervous System - spinal and cranial nerves Neural Communication - An electrical-chemical process - how the cell body of a neuron communicates with its own terminals via the axon. Communication between neurons is achieved at synapses by the process of neurotransmission. Neuron - Dendrites: branching extensions at the cell body. Receive messages from other neurons - Axon: long single extensions of a neuron, covered with myelin sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons - Cell body: Life support center of the neuron - Myelin Sheath: Insulating layer of fatty material; composed of glial cells; helps efficient transmission of signals to other cells; gaps in myelin sheath are nodes of Ranvier - Terminal Branches: branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons

Neural Impulse - A nerve impulse is the way nerve cells (neurons) communicate with one another. Nerve impulses are mostly electrical signals along the dendrites to produce a nerve impulse or action potential. The action potential is the result of ions moving in and out of the cell. Threshold and Action Potential - Electrical charge gathered by dendrites and cell body - Electrical charge travels down the axon to synapse - Stimulates the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse - Occurs only when electrical signal is at a certain level/threshold - “All-or-none” - electrical impulse is the same no matter how much stimulation the neuron receives - Neuron returns to resting state after electrical charge is transmitted - Wave of electrical energy “fires” down the axon (axon potential) > vesicles fuse with the membrane in Terminal Buttons > Neurotransmitters released into the synapse Synapse - Junction between one neuron’s axon and another’s dendrites/cell body - Neurotransmitters cross the synapse - Plays fundamental role in the communication between neurons Neurotransmitters - Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate action potential - Dopamine - Serotonin - GABA Reuptake - neurotransmitters are absorbed back into the presynaptic neuron Agonist - Any drug that ENHANCES the effects of a neurotransmitter - Agonist mimics neurotransmitter - The agonist molecule excites. It is similar enough in structure to the neurotransmitter molecule that it mimics its effects on the receiving neuron. Morphine, for example, mimics the action of endorphins bt stimulating the receptors in brain areas involved in mood and pain sensations

Antagonist - Any drug that DIMINISHES the effects of a neurotransmitter - Agonist BLOCKS neurotransmitters

Somatic Nervous System - Connects central system to voluntary muscles Autonomic Nervous System - Connects central system to non-voluntary muscles and glands - * Sympathetic system catabolic - arousing; readies body for activity;use of energy -STRESS RESPONSE - *parasympathetic system anabolic - RELAXATION RESPONSE Sympathetic Nervous System - The sympathetic nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) - Activates what is often termed the fight or flight response Parasympathetic Nervous System - Often referred to as the “rest and digest system” - Conserves energy as it slows the heart rate, increases intestinal gland activity and relaxes sphincter muscles in the gastrointestinal tract Endocrine System - Complex system of glands Hormones - Sleep encourages growth hormone - Stress hormones Glands - Pituitary - Thyroid - Parathyroid - Adrenal - Gonads Limbic System - a complex system of nerves and networks in the brain, involving several areas near the edge of the cortex concerned with instinct and mood. It controls the basic emotions (fear, pleasure, anger) and drives (hunger, sex, dominance, care of offspring). Amygdala - Emotions are felt directly through the amygdala or through the cortex Hypothalamus - Initiates two stress reactivity pathways

The Cerebral Cortex - the outer layer of the cerebrum (the cerebral cortex ), composed of folded gray matter and playing an important role in consciousness. Plasticity - the adaptability of an organism to changes in its environment or differences between its various habitats. Two Hemispheres of the brain (split brain) - Split-brain is a lay term to describe the result when the corpus callosum

connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is severed to some degree. It is an association of symptoms produced by disruption of or interference with the connection between the hemispheres of the brain. Electroencephalogram (EEG) - a test or record of brain activity produced by electroencephalography. Neuroimaging - PET Scan - MRI Scan CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE TWO-TRACK MIND Forms of Consciousness - Daydreaming - Drowsiness - Dreaming - Hallucinations - Orgasm - Sensory deprivation - Hypnosis - Meditation Other forms of altered consciousness - Minimal consciousness - Full consciousness - Self-consciousness Dual Processing - Dual processing - info is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious levels - Two track mind - serial conscious processing - solving problems with focused attention; unconscious parallel processing: “autopilot” taking care of business

Awareness Selective Attention - Our conscious awareness processes only a small part of all that we experience. We intuitively make use of the information we are not consciously aware of Cocktail Party Effect - Phenomenon of the brain’s ability to focus one’s auditory attention (an effect of selective attention in the brain) on a particular stimulus while filtering our a range of other stimuli, as when a partygoer can focus on a single conversation in a noisy room Inattentional Blindness - Inattentional blindness refers to the inability to see an object or a person in our midst. Simons and Chabris (1999) showed that half of the observers failed to see that the gorilla was passing through the game Change Blindness - Change blindness is a form of inattentional blindness in which two-thirds of individuals giving directions failed to notice a change in the individual asking for directions SLEEP Circadian Rhythm - Often referred to as the "body clock," the circadian rhythm is a cycle that tells our bodies when to sleep, rise, eat—regulating many physiological processes. This internal body clock is affected by environmental cues, like sunlight and temperature. Stages of Sleep - Measuring sleep - about every 90 minutes, we pass through a cycle of 5 distinct sleep stages Awake but relaxed - When an individual closes his eyes but remains awake, his brain activity slows down to a large amplitude and slow, regular alpha waves (9-14 cps). A meditating person exhibits an alpha brain activity Sleep Stages 1-2 - During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular waveform called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming shows theta activity Sleep Stages 3-4 - During the deepest sleep (stages 3-4) brain activity slows down. There are large amplitude, slow delta waves (1.5-4 cps) Stage 5: REM Sleep - After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the sleep cycle starts moving backwards toward stage 1. Although still asleep, the brain engages in low-amplitude, fast and

regular beta waves (15-40 cps) much like awake-aroused state. - A...