Psych 167AC Midterm 1 PDF

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Midterm 1 Preparation...

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Psych 167AC Midterm 1 Study Guide Below are the dates, relevant topic, and readings for each respective date, each color coded (according to syllabus). Please add whatever you can and add topics if anything is missing.

August 28th - Intro + Overview - Miner 1956; Jordan & Zanna, 1999 Lecture notes (8/28): ● Human behavior is like the weather - unpredictable. ● The big trade-off in research ○ Ecological validity vs. control ○ Ideal: multi method research ■ Converging evidence between ■ Observational ■ Correlational ■ Experimental ● Methods of data collection ○ Direct observation of behavior ■ Drawback: researchers' presence may affect the behavior observed ○ Archival studies give access to existing records of past events ■ Drawback: original records may be incomplete, biased ○ Survey questionnaires: paper and paper scales ■ Drawback: social desirability ○ Experimental studies ■ Drawback: applicability to real life ● Correlational research ○ Relationship between 2 variables ○ It can be observational, archival, or survey methods ○ The stat used is the correlation coefficient: ranging from +1 or -! ○ +1: the stronger positive ○ -1: the stronger negative ○ Closer to 0: less relationship between variables ● Strengths and drawbacks ○ Strengths ■ Enable researchers to study problems in which intervention is impossible ■ Efficiency ○ Drawbacks ■ Reverse causality problem ■ Third variable problem

■ Correlation doesn't imply causation ● Experimental research ○ Allows us to infer cause-and-effect relationships ■ Need a hypothesis ■ Need to decide on how you will operationalize your variables ○ Independent and dependent variables ■ IV is one the experimenter manipulates to see its effect on participants ■ It has two or more conditions (i.g., latino, black, white) ■ A study will have one or more IV ■ A subject variable may be used as an IV (difference between participants) ■ DV is the factor that the independent variable is expected to have an effect on ■ Operationally defined measurement assessed to learn the effect of different conditions of the IV ■ Can be one or more DV for each IV

■ IV/DV distinction not useful in correlational research ● Confound ○ Variable that in unintentionally allowed to co-vary with the IV that prevents us from establishing a link between the IV and DV ● Other controls used in the experiment

○ Environment and setting are held constant ○ Procedures are standardized ○ When possible, computers or other machines run the study and collect data

Miner 1956: -

The Nacirema - Highly developed market economy, time devoted to economic pursuits - Shrines devoted to powerful influences of ritual and ceremony in each house (restroom) - Mouth ritual (brushing teeth), holy mouth man (dentist), women baking their heads (hair dryers) - Medicine men in temples (doctors in hospitals), the listener (therapists); Intercourse is taboo - Attempts to create a deliberate sense of self-distancing in order that American anthropologists might look at their own culture more objectively - Culture is based on rituals and that each culture defines its reality and acceptable behavior and chooses its authorities by rituals - In order to understand someone of a different sociological background, one must think outside the box that is America’s way of viewing things

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Objective of article: Put into perspective how other cultures may appear “strange” but to them it seemed normal. What seemed weird was that our culture would not do certain things such as the “holes in teeth” and “head ovens.” Implications: The implication was to figure out what it was about our culture that when phrased in a differing format made us judgemental and Nacirema is American spelled backwards. This highlights the hypocrisy of Americans and individuals and ties back into the theme of the course on stigma and prejudice without even knowing what the cultures posed and the norm to them.

Jordan & Zanna, 1999: -

Objective of article: The article teaches how to read a journal article in Social psychology and the main factors to look out for when reading such articles. Implications: The implications of the article are to show us how to understand and read an author’s story and see where it leads your beliefs, judgements as well as the paths it has for further research to continue on the subject.

August 30th - Scientific Method - Pirsig, R. “Why Clever People Believe Stupid Things” Lecture notes (8/30): -

Correlation and Experiment Studies - Slope doesn't have to do with correlation - Other controls used in the experiment method - Environment and setting are held constant - Procedures are standardized - Random assignment - Ensures participant has equal chance of assignment to each experimental condition - Pre-existing differences among participants gets randomly distributed between the conditions - Within subjects designs vs between subjects designs - Main effects - If experimental and control groups differ in the DV, a main effect is found - If the IV affects all people in the same way - Interaction effects - IV affects the DV depending on the levels of another IV - Analyzing and interpreting data - Results are statistically significant if they could not have occurred by chance - Chance means not caused by the IV - Statistical significance: 0.05

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Stereotyping and prejudice ○ Stereotypes

■ Beliefs about the attributes typically possessed by members of a group ○ Prejudice ■ Affective (emotional) disposition toward members of a group by virtue of their group membership ○ Discrimination ■ Unequal treatment of members of a group relative to members of another group because of their group membership ○ Stereotypes Cognition ○ Prejudice Affect

○ Discrimination Behavior -

Stigma

○ An attribute that conveys a social identity that is devalued in a particular social context

■ Men in VS ■ Women in STEM Bias perpetrator's perspective Stigma target's perspective -

Racial Stereotypes of One Hundred College Students, Katz and Braly ○ First experimental measure of stereotype content ○ Asked 100 Princeton students to choose the 5 most descriptive adjectives which best characterized various ethnic, cultural, and racial groups ○ In many cases, high degree of consensus ○ Gave impetus to investigate the nature and content of stereotypes

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Three general approaches ○ Cognitive approach: postulates that human information processing is inherently imperfect and limited ■ Stereotypes are a by-product of human information processing

■ A way of simplifying the world ■ Given attentional demands, it is impossible not to stereotype ○ Intrapsychic/psychodynamic ■ Rooted in Freud ■ Ego needs met by acting in a discriminatory way ■ You feel good by making less of others ■ Reaction formation ○ Socio-cultural ■ Rooted in class/economic group conflicts of interest ■ Society/culture socializes us to discriminate ■ Social events shape ingroup/outgroup hostility

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Schemas ○ Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the world

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Direct attention Guide interpretation of schema relevant information Advantage: suggest a course of action Disadvantage: can be wrong Vary in context ■ Object schemas

■ Scripts ■ Person schemas: set of info or beliefs we have about a person ■ Efficient way to organize information by using existing information while being able to incorporate new information ■ We use whatever information we have about a person to build a mental picture of the whole person

Lecture Notes (9/4): -

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Zebrowitz & McDonald (1991) - 506 small claims court cases in MA - Defendants' baby-facedness - Judgments of criminal intent - Judgements of negligence - The more baby faced the defendant was, the more their actions were attributed to negligence rather than intent Two step model of cognitive processing of stereotypes - Stereotype active activation -> automatic - Occurs whenever a stereotypic stimulus is encountered; either a member of a stereotyped group or a stereotypical statement; the stereotype is accessed from memory outside of awareness - Non-prejudiced response -> controlled - Occurs with awareness, as when you choose to disregard or ignore the stereotyped information that has been brought to mind Camper Experiment (shown picture of black or white student) - Asked how aggressive they think the child will be if teased or punished - Results - No cognitive load, no difference between black and white target - With cognitive load, black target were more significantly predicted to be aggressive

“Why Clever People Believe Stupid Things”: -

Randomness- we tend to see patterns when there’s only random noise - Ex. winning streak in baseball (xoxoxo sequence)

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Regression to the mean- we see casual relationships where there is none - Ex. subjects trying to get the child to come to school at 8:30 when the child’s arrival times were completely random - Subjects were allowed to reprimand, and they thought that they had an effect when in reality there was no relationship between the reprimands and the child’s arrival time The bias towards positive evidence-confirmation bias - We overvalue confirmatory information for any given hypothesis - We seek out confirmatory information for any given hypothesis - Ex. card example - Ex. when they asked people to read a vignette about a woman who exemplified various introverted and extroverted behaviour//one group was asked to consider her for a librarian and other estate agent//they tended to describe the woman with the job they were examining her for Biased by our prior beliefs-our assessment of the quality of new evidence is biased by our previous beliefs - Ex. proponents and opponents of state executions were collected and the subjects were able to uncover flaws that went against their pre-existing view, but downplayed half the flaws in the research that supported their view Availability- When information is more ‘available’, it becomes more disproportionately prominent - Ex. subjects were read a list of male and female names, asked if there were more men or women on the list//if names were well recognized in one sex, and not the other, the subjects thought that there were more of that sex Social influences-our values are socially reinforced by conformity and by the company we keep - Ex. Asch’s experiment - Attributional bias- our successes are due to our own internal faculties, and our failures are due to external factors//for others, successes are due to luck and failures to their own flaws Objective of article: The Objective of the article was to show how people are influenced by their surroundings and sometimes believe stupid things, against their best judgement due to social stigma and preconceived notions.

September 6th, 11th - Bias  and Sources of Bias - Weisbuch,  Pauker, & Ambady, 2009 Lecture notes (9/6): -

Judgements of guilt study (Bodenhausen) - Tested on morning types and evening types

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Read information about a defendant and asked to rate his aggressiveness and guilt - Morning types, not that big of a difference between stereotypical Hispanic names and ambiguous names - Evening types, significant difference; stereotypical Hispanic names rated as more aggressive and guilty - Even circadian rhythms affect cognitive processing Stereotypes as energy saving devices (Macrae, Milne, Bodenhausen) - Gave participants characteristics of a name and see how many they can recall - Gave participants characteristics of a name (and their occupation) and see how many they can recall - When stereotype was present, had more traits recalled Intrapsychic/psychodynamic approach - More generally a motivational approach - Ego needs met by acting in discriminatory way - Feel good by making less of others - Newest formulation: terror management theory Terror Management Theory (Study 1) - Terror management theory: reminding people of their mortality increases attraction to those who consensually validate their beliefs and decreases attraction to those who threaten their beliefs - Subjects with a Christian background were asked to form impressions of Christian and Jewish target persons. Before doing so, mortality was made salient to half of the subjects. In support of predictions, mortality salience led to more positive evaluations of the in-group member (the Christian) and more negative evaluations of the out-group member (the Jew). Adams, Wright, Lohr (1996) - Heterosexual volunteers into high vs. low homophobes - In private, volunteers watched segments of pornography - Consensual straight activity - Consensual female homosexual activity - Consensual male homosexual activity - Measured volunteers' sexual arousal - Results: high homophobic people actually had higher arousal for homosexual videos - Same level of arousal for straight video Sociocultural approach - Rooted in class/economic group conflicts of interest - Society/culture socializes us to discriminate - Social events shape ingroup/outgroup hostility - Realistic conflict theory: theory that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination Hovland and Sears (1940)

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Higher price of cotton, higher number of lynchings of African-Americans imp

Lecture notes (9/11): -

Old fashioned racism vs. Modern racism ● Modern Racism ○ Explicit expression of bias is discouraged

○ Anti-black affect still prevalent ○ Manifested in symbolic opposition to affirmative action policies and civil rights ● Modern Racism Scale (MRS) ○ Modern racism may not be so modern anymore; correlations of MRS with OFR are increasing

○ Does MRS measure racism or conservatism? ■ Principled conservatism critique: opposition to race based preferences may reflect conservative values (meritocracy, free market) more than anti-Black affect ● Unobtrusive measures ○ Helping behavior

■ Takes advantage of ambiguity ■ Meta-analysis ○ Aggression ■ P's give a reason to aggress ○ Nonverbal communication ■ Less subject to self presentation ■ Word, Zanna, Cooper (1974) ● Word, Zanna, & Cooper (1974) ○ Expt 1. ■ White interviewer participants ■ Trained Black & White job applicants ■ Interviewer participants treated Black applicants worse than White ones ■ Sat farther away ■ Less forward leaning ■ Less eye contact ■ Shorter interview ■ Interviewer participants acted in line with negative stereotypical expectations

○ Expt. 2 ■ White job applicant participants ■ Trained interviewers ■ Acted like Expt. 1's interviewers with Black applicants

■ Acted like Expt. 1's interviewers with White applicants ■ Judges rated performance of job applicant participants ■ Job applicant participants who were treated like the Black job applicants in Exp.1 performed worse on the interview ● Why do unobtrusive measures reveal racism while support for racial integration has increased and racial attitudes have improved? ● Aversive Racism

○ Gaertner & Dovidio ○ Conflicts between ideals (egalitarianism) and emotions and behaviors (biased) is aversive (inspires guilt) ○ This aversive feeling exacerbates the problem by making minorities a source of anxiety ○ There's no Aversive Racism Scale

○ Theory is posited to explain how people who disavow racism nevertheless exhibit bias (as demonstrated in studies employing unobtrusive measures)

● Aversive racists ○ Sympathize with victims of past injustice ○ Support social equality ○ Identify with a liberal agenda ○ BUT possess negative feelings about Black folks (typically excluded from awareness)

○ In scripted and accountable situations -> more egalitarian ○ In ambiguous situations -> discrimination should occur ● Help giving to White and Black victims ○ If people were alone, helped both races about the same ○ If people were together, helped Whites a lot more than Blacks ● People who helped caller in distress ○ Conservatives helped Whites more; Liberals helped about both equally ● People who hung up prematurely ○ Both Conservatives and Liberals hung up on Black callers more often (aversive racists?) ● Modern Gender Bias

○ Ambivalent Sexism ■ 2 correlated yet opposite components ■ Hostile Sexism (misogyny) ■ Benevolent Sexism (paternalism) ■ Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI) ● Modern racism vs. aversive racism ○ Both assume deeply rooted prejudices

○ Both assume a negotiation between prejudicial feelings and egalitarianism ○ Both assume a lack of awareness of prejudicial attitudes ○ However, modern racism is more closely tied to conservatism, AR is more closely linked to liberalism ● Semantic priming ● Automatic attitude activation

● Implicit Association Test (IAT) ○ More closely two concepts are, easier to respond to them as a single unit ○ If two concepts are strongly associated, you respond faster ○ If two concepts are not so strongly associated, you respond slower if they are paired as a unit ○ The belief is thus operationalized as reaction time

Weisbuch, Pauker, & Ambady, 2009: ● Weisbuch et al. (2009) on nonverbal bias ○ Questions and theories: ■ Race biases can be subtly transmitted via televised nonverbal behavior ■ Exposure to pro-white nonverbal bias increased viewers' bias ■ Hidden pattern of televised nonverbal behavior influence bias among viewers

○ Study 1 ■ Examined whether nonverbal race bias exists across 11 tv shows ■ Showed clips of interaction (10sec); remove audio track and block out character

■ Participants rated the extent to which the blocked character was treated positively ■ Results: white characters elicited more favorable nonverbal responses ■ Test for different variables: rated on attractiveness, sociability, kindness, intelligence ■ White and black characters did not differ in verbal responses ○ Study 2 (correlation)

■ Exposure to nonverbal race bias was calculated by asking the participants which shows they watched, then averaging the race bias scores for these shows ■ Then took the IAT

■ Results: more exposure to nonverbal bias was associated with greater IAT scores ○ Study 3

■ After exposure to either pro-white or pro-black clips, participants completed the IAT

■ Results: participants exposed to pro-white clips had higher IAT scores ○ Study 4 (causal relationship) ■ Control condition ■ Affective priming measure replaced IAT ■ White associations were more positive for participants exposed to pro white clips ■ Black associations were more positive for participants exposed to pro-black ○ Conclusion

■ Americans are exposed via TV to nonverbal race bias and that can influence perceivers' race associations and racial attitudes

September 13th - Bias  and Health - Leitner,  Hehman, Ayduk, & Mendoza-Denton, 2016; Rheinschmidt-Same, John-Henderson, & Mendoza-Denton, 2016 Lecture notes: Overview - bystander intervention ● Source of implicit bias ● Deindividuation & non-social groups ● Continuum of social influence ● Conformity ○ Ambiguous situations vs. non ambiguous situations ○ Implications for belief/attitude change Prejudice in society ● Explicit stereotyping and prejudice has gone down over time ● Implicit stereotyping and prejudice still common Causes of stereotyping and prejudice Weisbuch, Pauker, and Ambady, 2009 ● Study 1 ○ Participants: 23 white graduates ○ Procedure: Ps watched silent clips from popular TV shows ■ Rated the extent to which an unseen character (black or white) was treated positively and liked by other characters (-3 to +3) ■ Much more favor to white characters ● Study 2 ○ Participants: 53 white undergraduates ○ Procedure: Ps completed survey then took IAT (correlated it with whether...