Psych ch. 2 notes PDF

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Chapter 2: RESEARCH METHODS Process of Research Generate research question (s)o Based on theory, prior research, observations, unanswered questions Form hypothesiso Tentative and testable statement; often “if...then...” Design and implement studyo Select appropriate scientific method (examples described below)o Goal is to allow researchers to draw conclusions with maximum objectivity 

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฀Analyze and interpret results

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฀Report findings

o Public verifiability 

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฀Consider open (unanswered) questions

฀Conduct new research to address open questions Descriptive Methods Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation – goal: Describe behaviors in the real world without attempting to influence or control behaviors being observed.. Advantage: Observing behaviors as they occur, without intervening or altering behaviors in anyway • Systematic study of behavior in natural settings, without attempting to influence or control it • Methods used: behavioral measures – ways to study observable and recordable behaviors • Possible biases o Observer effect - tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed

Observer bias – tendency of observers to see what they expect to see they know they are being observed• Remedy – becoming familiar in the group being observed o Observer/Experimenter bias – personal motives and/or expectations of the observer may distort what is observed• Remedy o Standardization – uniform, consistent procedureso Operational definitions – clearly defined variable or conditiono “Blind” observers - people who do not know what the research question is Case StudyAn in-depth study of one or a few individuals consisting of information gathered through the in depth study of one person to understand behaviors of others Advantage: on-depth analysis of one person; can be used when other research methods are inappropriate Disadvantage: What is learned by studying one person may not necessarily apply... observation, interview, and perhaps psychological testing RESEARCH METHODS Studying Relationships - Correlational MethodsA research method used to establish the degree of relationship (correlation) between two (or more characteristics, events, or behaviors (Variables). Variables= characteristics, events, or behaviors that can change or vary more) variables, traits, attributes, events, or behaviors. Correlation coefficient – statistic that indicates the degree of relationship between variables o Positive correlation - as one set of scores increases, a second set also increaseso Negative correlation – as one set of scores increases, a second set decreaseso Uncorrelated = no relationship between variables

Positive Correlation – two variables ‘vary” in the same direction (as one increases, so does the other) Methods used to study correlations o Behavioral observationo Surveys/questionnaireso Interviews Negative Correlation – two variables “vary” in opposite directions (as one increases, the other decreases) Correlation method – allows for general predictions, can be used when the experimental method cannot, but it is often misinterpreted. Correlation does not mean causation

Survey Research – collecting information from selected group of people who are representative of larger group

The magnitude of the correlation coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship between the two variables. This magnitude can vary from 0.00 to +/- 1.00.

Term

Definition

Example

Hypothesis

Testable research question

Students who study while listening to grades on tests than those who do not

Independent variable (IV)

Variable that the researcher manipulates (expects IV will have an impact on the DV)

Listening to music while studying

Dependent variable (DV)

Variable that is measured to assess impact of IV

Performance/grade in course

the group that is exposed to the IV

Students who study while listening to

Number of groups depends on number of IVs

Can have more than one experimental to light jazz, one group listens to classi rap, etc.

a group that is similar to the experimental group and is exposed to the same experimental environment but is not exposed to the IV

Students who study and do not listen t

Experimental group

Control group

used for purposes of comparison Possible biaseso Sample is not representative (does not closely match the characteristics of the population being studied)Remedy: random sampling o Social desirabilityRemedy – instructions, confidentiality of responses ALERT: Correlation does not imply causation – it simply shows the degree of relationship between variables. Experimental Method – preferred research method among all scientists Goals: Manipulating independent variable to determine how they affect dependent variables. Tests causal hypothesiso Explores cause and effect relationship between variables 

 ฀One or more variables are systematically altered/changed in order to determine if this change affects some aspect of behavior

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 ฀Preferred research method among scientists (including psychologists) Components of an Experiment

Sources of Bias - What can affect the accuracy of experimental results? • Selection biaso Biased assignment of participants for experimental and control groups • Remedy: random assignment • Placebo effecto DV change is due to participant expectations instead of the IV

• Remedy: placebo control • Expectancy effectso Researcher’s expectations influence participant’s behavior or how results are interpreted – controlled through double blind studies • Remedy: single blind studies (researcher is blind to group assignments) or double blind studies (both researcher and participants are unaware of group assignment) Research Ethics American Psychological Association’s Ethical Standards and Code of Conduct Protecting the rights of animal and human research participants(Good overview of these issues in text) Become a critical consumer of research. Beware of Pseudoscience! Confounding variable – any factors or conditions other than the IV that could cause measured/observed changes in the DV...