Adolescent Psych Exam 2 Notes PDF

Preview

Summary

chapters 4 - 7...

Description

Chapter 4: The Self, Identity, Emotion, and Personality

● The self ○ More so than as children, adolescents carry with them a sense of who they are and what makes them different from everyone else ○ Real or imagined, an adolescent’s developing sense of self and uniqueness is a motivating force in life ● Self and self understanding ○ Self: all of the characteristics of a person ○ Self-understanding is the individual’s cognitive representation of the self, the substance and content of self-conceptions. ○ The development of self-understanding in adolescence is complex and involves a number of aspects of the self ● Dimensions of self understanding in adolescents ○ Abstraction and idealism ■ Describe themselves in more abstract and idealistic ways ○ Differentiation ■ More likely to note contextual or situational variations in describing themselves ○ The Fluctuating Self ■ The self fluctuates across time and situations ● Example; being cheerful one moment, anxious the next moment, and irritable a short time later ○ Contradictions within the self ■ As adolescents begin to differentiate their self concept into multiple roles and contexts they begin to sense contradictions ○ Real vs Ideal Self ■ Possible self - what individuals might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming ○ True vs False Self ■ Present false self to impress others, try out new roles ■ Experienced authenticity of self highest among adolescents who say they receive support from their parents ○ Social Comparison ■ More likely than children to compare themselves with others ● Looking glass self - an individual’s beliefs about how he or she is viewed by others ○ Self-Consciousness ■ Adolescents are more likely than children to be self-conscious about their self-understanding (and about themselves generally speaking) ○ Self Protection ■ Minimizing negative characteristics ● Self Esteem and Self Concept ○ Self esteem - global evaluative dimension of the self ○ Self Concept - domain specific evaluations of the self ○ Susan harter (1989) developed a measure for adolescents called the self perception profile for adolescents

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

■ Assesses eight different domains and globally assesses self esteem ○ Some researchers argue that self esteem and self concept should be assessed in multiple ways not solely through self report Measuring Self Esteem and Self Concept ○ Harter developed a separate measure of self esteem especially for adolescents: the Self Perception Profile for Adolescents ■ Scholastic competence ■ Athletic competence ■ Social acceptance ■ Physical appearance ■ Behavioral conduct ■ Close friendship ■ Romantic appeal ■ Job competence The Negative Impacts that Social Media Have On Our Self Esteem ○ Social media has been linked to higher levels of loneliness, envy, anxiety, depression, narcissism, and decreased social skills Self Esteem and Self Concept ○ Self esteem reflects perceptions ■ These perceptions do not always match reality ○ Narcissism - self centered and self concerned approach towards others Changes in Self Esteem ○ Self esteem fluctuates across the life span ■ Often decreases when children take a transition ○ Studies often find that adolescent girls have lower self esteem than adolescent boys do Consequences of Low Self Esteem ○ An important point is that research on self esteem is correlational rather than experimental Social Contexts Linked to Self Esteem ○ Family ■ Parenting attributes can influence self-esteem ● One study found that higher levels of family cohesion were linked to higher levels of adolescent self esteem ○ Peers ■ Approval of peers influences self esteem ● Approval of the peer group in general (classmates, peers in organizations than an adolescent is involved with) has been found to be more important than support and approval from close friends ○ School ■ Recall that self esteem decreases during school transitions Consequences of Low Self Esteem ○ For most adolescents, the emotional discomfort of low self esteem is temporary ○ In some adolescents, low self esteem can develop into other problems: depression, suicide, anorexia, and delinquency Improving Self Esteem

●

●

●

●

○ Four ways ■ Identifying the causes of low self esteem and the domains of competence important to the self ■ Providing emotional support and social approval ■ Fostering achievement ■ Helping adolescents to cope Self-Regulation ○ Self regulation - ability to control one’s behavior without having to rely on others’ help ■ It includes the self generation and cognitive monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal ○ A key component of self regulation is engaging in effortful control which involves ■ Inhibiting impulses and not engaging in destructive behavior ■ Focusing and maintaining attention despite distractions ■ Initiating and completing tasks that have long term value even if they may seem unpleasant ○ Some researchers emphasize the early development of self regulation in childhood and adolescence as a key contributor to adult health and even longevity ○ Nancy Eisenberg and colleagues concluded that self regulation fosters conscientiousness later in life, both directly and through its link to academic motivation/success and internalized compliance with norms Erikson’s ideas on identity: role experimentation ○ Identity is a self portrait composed of many pieces ■ vocational / career identity ■ Political identity ■ Religious identity ■ Relationship identity ■ Achievement, intellectual identity ■ Sexual identity ■ cultural/ethnic identity ■ Interests ■ Personality ■ Physical identity Identity: Erikson ○ Identity vs. identity confusion (erikson’s fifth developmental stage) ■ Adolescents experience a psychosocial moratorium; gap between childhood security and adult autonomy ○ Successful - formation of a new sense of self ○ Those adolescents who are not able to resolve the identity crisis enter identity confusion Personality and Role Experimentation ○ During the psychosocial moratorium, adolescents try out different roles and personalities ■ They might experiment with their personality traits, friends, and the way they dress ○ By late adolescence, vocational roles often become the concentration of identity

●

●

●

●

●

development ○ Identity involves many components Some Contemporary Thoughts on Identity ○ A current concern about the development of identity in adolescence and emerging adulthood was voiced in William Damon’s book, The Path to Purpose The Four Statuses of Identity ○ James Marcia ■ Stressed that Erikson’s identity development theory could end in four results ■ Uses crisis and commitment to classify individuals into four different groups ● Crisis - a period of identity development during which the adolescent is choosing among meaningful alternatives ● Commitment - the part of identity development in which adolescents show a personal investment in what they are going to do ○ Identity diffusion ■ Adolescents are in this state when they have not yet experienced an identity crisis or made any commitments ○ Identity foreclosure ■ Adolescents are in this state when they have made a commitment but have not experienced an identity crisis ○ Identity moratorium ■ Adolescents are in this state when they are in the midst of an identity crisis, but have not made a clear commitment to an identity ○ Identity achievement ■ Adolescents in this stage have undergone an identity crisis and made a commitment Developmental Changes in Identity ○ The key changes in identity are more likely to take place later on in adolescence or in emerging adulthood ○ The first identity an individual commits to is not necessarily their final ■ People can cycle through different stages of identity Family Influences ○ Cooper and colleagues have found that a family atmosphere that promotes both individuality and connectedness is important in an adolescent’s identity development ■ Individuality consists of two dimensions ● Self assertion - the ability to have and communicate a point of view ● Separateness - the use of communication patterns to express how one is different from others ■ Connectedness also consists of two dimensions ● Mutuality - involves sensitivity to and respect for others’ views ● Permeability - involves openness to other’s views Cultural and Ethnic Indentity

●

●

●

●

●

○ Erikson believed ethnic identity was an important component of identity development ○ Ethnic identity - an enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, along with the attitudes and feelings related to that memberships ■ Adolescents in ethnic minority groups have to consider the choice between two or more sources of identification - their own ethnic groups or the dominant culture ○ How is this resolved? ■ Bicultural identity - identity formation that occurs when adolescents identify in some ways with their ethnic group and in other ways with the majority culture Gender and Identity ○ Erikson believed: ■ Males oriented toward careers ■ Females oriented toward marriage and childbearing ○ Research conducted in the 1960s and 1970s supported these gender differences Emotional Development ○ Emotion - feeling or affect that occurs when a person is in a state or an interaction that is important to the individual, especially to his or her wellbeing ■ Often characterized by behaviors ■ Vary in intensity The Emotions of Adolescence ○ Early adolescence - emotional highs and lows occur more frequently ■ Sometimes the intensity of emotions young teens express seem out of proportion to the eliciting situation ○ Moodiness is normal in early adolescence Hormones, Experience, and Emotions ○ Significant hormonal changes occur during puberty ■ May be related to emotional fluctuations in early adolescence ○ Pubertal change is associated with an increase in negative emotions ○ Both hormonal and environmental changes are important Emotional Competence ○ In adolescence ■ Are more likely to be aware of their emotional cycles ■ Become more skilled at presenting their emotions to others ○ Saarni (1999) believed that adolescents should develop the following emotional competencies: ■ Awareness that emotional expression plays a role in relationships ■ Adaptive coping ■ Inner emotional states do not have to correspond to outer expressions ■ Being aware of one’s emotional states without being overwhelmed by them ■ Being able to discern others’ emotions ○ Personality ■ Personality -- the enduring personal characteristics of individuals

● Viewed as encompassing the self and identity ■ Big Five Factors of Personality ■ C.A.N.O.E ● Conscientiousness ○ Organized or disorganized ○ Careful or careless ○ Disciplined or impulsive ● Agreeableness ○ Softhearted or ruthless ○ Trusting or suspicious ○ Helpful or uncooperative ● Neuroticism (emotional stability) ○ Calm or anxious ○ Secure or insecure ○ Self satisfied or self pitying ● Openness (to experience) ○ Imaginative or practical ○ Interested in variety or routine ○ Independent or conforming ● Extraversion ○ Sociable or retiring ○ Fun-loving or sober ○ Affectionate or reserved ○ Temperament ■ An individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding ● Typically studied in infants ■ Three basic types according to Chess and Thomas (1977;1991) ● Easy child ○ Generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, and adapts easily to new experiences ● Difficult child ○ Reacts negatively to many situations and is slow to accept new experiences ● Slow to warm up child ○ Has low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood Chapter 5: Gender ● Basic definitions ○ Gender - sociocultural and psychological dimensions of being male or female ○ Gender role - a set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should think, act, and feel ○ Pubertal change and sexuality intensifies the aspects of adolescents’ gender attitudes and behavior ● Gender from an Evolutionary psychology standpoint ○ Due to differing roles in reproduction, males and females faced different environmental

●

●

●

●

●

●

pressures ■ Males ● Multiple sexual relationships ● Compete with other males ■ Females ● Goal of acquiring resources for offspring ○ Achieved by acquiring a long-term mate who could provide for the family ● Evolution favors females who devote effort to parenting, choose mates to provide for offspring ■ Consequently, females developed preferences for successful, ambitious men who could provide resources Evolutionary Perspective: Where’s the Proof? ○ Buss & Schmitt (1993) ○ Clark and Hatfield (1989) Social influences on gender ○ Social role theory - gender differences mainly result from the contrasting roles of females and males Parental Influences ○ Parents, both by action and example, influence the gender development of their adolescents ○ Mother’s socialization strategies ■ In many cultures, mothers socialize daughters to be more obedient, responsible ○ Fathers’ socialization strategies ■ Pay more attention to and engage in more activities with sons Social Cognitive Theory of Gender ○ Children and adolescent gender development is influenced by their observation and imitation of others’ gender behavior, as well as by the rewards and punishments they experience for gender in/appropriate behavior More Social Influences ○ Siblings ■ In early adolescence, siblings became more similar to older siblings in gender role and leisure activity ○ Peers ■ In middle and late childhood - preference for spending time with same gendered peers ■ In adolescence, peer approval and disapproval can influence gender attitudes/behavior Mass Media Influences ○ TV ■ Shows for adolescents are often extremely stereotyped when they portray males and females ○ MTV

■ Often targets a male audience ○ Early adolescence is a time of heightened sensitivity to TV messages about gender roles ○ TV has idealized characters with whom adolescents can identify ●

●

●

●

Cognitive Influences on Gender ○ Gender schema theory - gender typing emerges as individuals gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender appropriate and gender inappropriate in their culture ■ Schema - a cognitive structure, a network of associations that guides an individual’s perceptions ■ Gender schema - organizes the world in terms of male and female ○ Individuals are motivated to perceive the world and act in accordance with developing schemas Gender Stereotyping ○ Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males ■ Stereotypes are often general and ambiguous ■ Stereotypes often change when cultural change occurs ■ Stereotyping of males and females is pervasive Socioemotional Similarities and Differences ○ Aggression ■ Boys are more physically aggressive than girls across cultures ■ Some studies suggest girls engage in more relational aggression (involves harming someone by manipulating a relationship) ○ Communication in Relationships ■ Rapport talk - the language of conversation and a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships ● Females engage in this more often ■ Report talk - talk that gives information ● Males engage in this more often ○ Boys ■ Tend to play in large groups with hierarchical structures ■ Games have winners and losers ■ Often brag about their skills, argue about who is best ○ Girls ■ Tend to play in small groups or pairs ■ Intimacy is important ■ Turn-taking is more characteristic in games ○ Research suggests that girls are more “people oriented” and boys are more “thing oriented” ○ Prosocial behavior ○ Emotion ■ Females are better at decoding emotions than are males, express more emotions ■ Emotion regulation sex differences Gender in Context

○ Gender behavior varies across contexts ■ Examples: ● ● ●

●

●

●

●

Helping behavior Displays of emotions Culture ○ Some cultures still have highly differentiated gender roles. Gender roles are more flexible in the US Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny ○ In the past… ■ Masculine = independent, aggressive, powerful ■ Feminine - dependent, nurturing, uninterested in power ○ 1970s change in stereotyped gender roles ■ Androgyny - the presence of a high degree of masculine and feminine characteristics in the same individual ○ The Bem Sex-Role Inventory was developed to assess androgyny. Based on the inventory, individuals are classified into four categories ■ Masculine ■ Feminine ■ Androgynous ■ Undifferentiated Context, Culture, and Gender Roles ○ An individual’s gender classification is a personality trait like categorization of a person ■ Traits depend on context ■ One of the most important contexts to consider is culture ○ More children and adolescents in the US and other countries are being raised to behave in more androgynous ways ○ Traditional gender roles still predominant in many countries ○ Even in US, cultural background of adolescents determine how boys and girls are socialized ○ Females still receive less education than males as a whole Androgyny and Education ○ Can and should androgyny be taught to students? ■ Easier to teach to girls ■ Easier to teach before middle school ○ Many say traditional sex-typing is harmful for all students Traditional Masculinity and Problem Behaviors in Adolescent Males ○ Pollack (1999) theorized that “boy code” exists ○ Adolescent boys who adopt a traditionally strong masculine role tend to exhibit more behavior problems ■ Drink alcohol ■ Take drugs ■ Participate in illegal delinquent activities

●

●

●

●

Gender role transcendence ○ The view that when an individual’s competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized on a person basis rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny Early Adolescence and Gender Intensification ○ Gender intensification hypothesis states that psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles Is Early Adolescence a Critical Juncture for Females? ○ Carol Gilligan ■ Argued that girls experience life differently than boys ■ Adolescence is a critical juncture for females ○ Criticisms of Gilligan ■ Overemphasizes gender differences ■ Research strategies ■ Reinforces stereotypes How can we guide adolescents’ gender development

○

○

Boys ■ Encourage more prosocial behavior ■ Encourage less physical aggression ■ Encourage boys to handle emotions more effectively Improve school performance Girls ■ Encourage girls to be proud of relationship skills Encourage development of self-competencies ■ Encourage achievement ■ Encourage assertiveness

Chapter 6: Sexuality

● Sexuality ○ Your sexual feelings, thoughts, attractions, and behaviors toward other people ○ Includes gender identity, sexual orientation, intimacy, body image, feelings of attraction, and many other factors ○ Sexuality is diverse, and there are many different types ● Sexuality in Adolescence ○ Stage of human development in which adolescents experience and explore sexual feelings ○ Interest in sexuality intensifies during the onset of puberty, and sexuality is often a vital aspect of teenagers’ lives ● Sexuality and Mental Health ○ Sexuality plays an important role in identity and sense of self ● The Role of Family and Friends ○ Families can have a major impact on the wellbeing of young people ○ Young people that experience conflict with, or rejection by, their families and

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

loved ones are at higher risk of developing depression and anxiety ■ They are also more at risk of homelessness, economic instability, self harm and suicide, substance abuse a...